Showing posts with label General Knowledge. Show all posts
Showing posts with label General Knowledge. Show all posts
Friday, November 6, 2009
MASS COMMUNICATION IN INDIA
MASS COMMUNICATION IN INDIA In a country like ours, mass communication plays a vital role in creating awareness in people about national policies and programmes by providing information and education besides healthy entertainment. It helps people to be active partners in the nation-building endeavour. The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting is responsible for development and regulation of information, broadcasting and film sectors where as the Press Council of India regulates the press and the print media in the country. Different modes of mass communication such as the Akashvani, All India Radio, Doordarshan, newspapers, cinemas, etc., operating under the electronic and print media and various organisation associated with them are discussed in detail in the General Knowledge section.
Basic Services
Basic Services Based on the recommendations of TRAI, the government announced guidelines in 2001 for issue of licences, with unrestricted open entry, to new basic service operators in all the service areas, including the six service areas where private licencees already existed. The country is divided into 21 territorial service areas for the grant of basic service licence. National Long Distance (NLD) service was opened to the private sector from August 13, 2000. The International Long Distance (ILD) service is basically a network carriage service, providing international connectivity to the network operated by foreign carriers. In accordance with the NTP 1999, the government opened the International Long Distance Service from April 1, 2002 to the private operators. There is no restriction on the number of operators.
CELLULAR SERVICES The country is divided into 19 telecom circles service areas and four metro service areas for the cellular mobile telephone service. There are three private operators and one state-owned operator in each service area.
INTERNET SERVICES Internet Services are opened for private participation since November 1998. Any Indian registered company is eligible for getting the licence and no prior experience is required. Foreign equity up to 100 per cent is permitted for Internet services providers (ISPs) without gateways and up to 74 per cent is permitted for ISPs with gateways.
CELLULAR SERVICES The country is divided into 19 telecom circles service areas and four metro service areas for the cellular mobile telephone service. There are three private operators and one state-owned operator in each service area.
INTERNET SERVICES Internet Services are opened for private participation since November 1998. Any Indian registered company is eligible for getting the licence and no prior experience is required. Foreign equity up to 100 per cent is permitted for Internet services providers (ISPs) without gateways and up to 74 per cent is permitted for ISPs with gateways.
Regulatory Framework
Regulatory Framework In early 1997, the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) was established to regulate the telecommunication services and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
A separate disputes settlement body known as the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal has also been constituted for expeditious settlement of disputes.
A pilot scheme, Grameen Sanchar Sewak (GSS) Scheme was launched on December 24, 2002 through Grameen Dak Sewak Delivery Agents (GDSDA) of the Department of Posts (DOP), attached to the rural post offices. In this scheme, GDSDA volunteers are called Grameen Sanchar Sewaks (GSS), who carry a mobile fixed wireless terminal (FWT) with display unit in a (;:arry bag and visit door to door to provide telephone facility to the rural population in his routine beat in the villages.
A separate disputes settlement body known as the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal has also been constituted for expeditious settlement of disputes.
A pilot scheme, Grameen Sanchar Sewak (GSS) Scheme was launched on December 24, 2002 through Grameen Dak Sewak Delivery Agents (GDSDA) of the Department of Posts (DOP), attached to the rural post offices. In this scheme, GDSDA volunteers are called Grameen Sanchar Sewaks (GSS), who carry a mobile fixed wireless terminal (FWT) with display unit in a (;:arry bag and visit door to door to provide telephone facility to the rural population in his routine beat in the villages.
Telecommunications System in India
Telecommunications System in India India operates one of the largest telecommunications networks in the world. It includes communication through telephone, mobile and Internet. The provision of world class telecommunication infrastructure is the key to rapid economic and social development of the country. It is also anticipated that in the near future, a major part of the GDP of the country would be contributed by this sector.
In India, telecommunication services were introduced soon after the invention of telegraphy and telephone. The first telegraph line between Calcutta and Diamond Harbour was opened for traffic in 1851. By March 1884, telegraph messages could be sent from Agra to Calcutta. By 1900, telegraph and telephone. had started serving the Indian Railways. Telephone service was also introduced in Calcutta in 1881-82, barely six years after the invention of telephone. The first automatic exchange was commissioned at Simla in 1913-14 with a capacity of 700 lines.
Initially, the telephone exchanges were of manual type, which were subsequently upgraded to automatic electromechanical type. In the last 'one-and-a-half decade, a significant qualitative improvement has been brought about by inducting digital electronic exchanges in the network on a very large scale. Today all the telephone exchanges in the country are of electronic type.
In India, telecommunication services were introduced soon after the invention of telegraphy and telephone. The first telegraph line between Calcutta and Diamond Harbour was opened for traffic in 1851. By March 1884, telegraph messages could be sent from Agra to Calcutta. By 1900, telegraph and telephone. had started serving the Indian Railways. Telephone service was also introduced in Calcutta in 1881-82, barely six years after the invention of telephone. The first automatic exchange was commissioned at Simla in 1913-14 with a capacity of 700 lines.
Initially, the telephone exchanges were of manual type, which were subsequently upgraded to automatic electromechanical type. In the last 'one-and-a-half decade, a significant qualitative improvement has been brought about by inducting digital electronic exchanges in the network on a very large scale. Today all the telephone exchanges in the country are of electronic type.
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
TELECOMMUNICATIONS Telecommunications systems are devices and techniques used for the transmission of information via wire, optical fibre, optical wireless, or radio wave. These systems transfer a wide variety of information, including audio (e.g., voice and music), video (still-frame and full motion), computer (files and applications), and telegraphic data. In other words, radio, televisions, telephones and computer-based data exchange or retrieval systems are examples of telecommunications systems.
Telephone and telegraph networks (e.g. telex) have long been in operation. More recently, cable television and telemetry networks, such as those used in the remote
control of automobile traffic and widely distributed industrial operations, have become prominent. Rapid advances in computer technology also have led to a dramatic growth of data-retrieval and exchange networks. Computer-tocomputer communication has also become commonplace for owners of home computers. Subscribers to special information services can interact with a host computer to access educational and entertainment materials as well as news and stock-market reports.
Telephone and telegraph networks (e.g. telex) have long been in operation. More recently, cable television and telemetry networks, such as those used in the remote
control of automobile traffic and widely distributed industrial operations, have become prominent. Rapid advances in computer technology also have led to a dramatic growth of data-retrieval and exchange networks. Computer-tocomputer communication has also become commonplace for owners of home computers. Subscribers to special information services can interact with a host computer to access educational and entertainment materials as well as news and stock-market reports.
Modernisation' of Mail Services
Modernisation' of Mail Services As a part of the modernisation programme, computerisation of the registration sorting work in major mail offices has been undertaken. A beginning in this regard was made during the financial year 1995-96 by computerising registration sorting work at Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad and Chennai. Another area identified for computerisation is the Transit Mail Offices (TMOs). The TMOs have a vital role in the smooth handling and transmission of closed mailbags. To improve the ergonomics and ambience of the Mail offices, these are being modernised with better operational equipments and improved furniture. As a part of modemisation programme, computerisation of the Head Record Office (HRO) for proper maintenance of valuable records their prompt retrieval and efficient office management has also been undertaken.
International mail
International mail India has been a member of the Universal Postal Union (UPU) since 1876 and of the Asian Pacific Postal Union (APPU) since 1964. These organisations aim at extending, facilitating and improving postal relations among member-countries. India exchanges mail with more than two hundred countries by air and surface. With a view to improve the quality of surface mails, India initially introduced the Surface Air Lifted (SAL) Mail Service in respect of letters and parcels to four destinations, namely Germany, Great Britain, Singapore and the USA. In respect of parcels, this service has now been extended to more countries.
Mail system
Mail system First-class mail, viz., post cards, inland letter cards and envelopes, are given air lift, without any surcharge, between stations connected by air. Second-class mail, viz., book packets, registered newspapers and periodicals are carried by surface transport, Le., trains, buses and other means.
Local mail is segmented from non-local mail in order to ensure a dedicated mail transmission system catering to the special customer needs. For prioritisation in transmission non-local mail is further segmented as: household mail, official mail, corporate mail, patrika and periodical mail, packets and parcel. First-class household and official mails have been identified as priority mail.
The following mail channels have been introduced in cities and larger towns.
Rajdhani channel This channel was introduced in 1994 for transmission of mail from Delhi to six state capitals. The remaining state capitals were covered by August 1995. The Rajdhani channel aims at catering to mails emanating from Delhi and meant for the state capitals and vice versa. Yellowcoloured letter boxes have been installed for such letters.
Metro channel This channel was also introduced in 1994 to handle inter-metro first-class mail between Bangalore, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad and Mumbai. In these cities light blue-coloured letter boxes have been installed especially for such letters.
Green channel Special arrangements exist in all major cities for expeditious delivery of 10'cal mail through this system. Unregistered first-class mail emanating from a town and meant for delivery within that town are delivered the next day of posting. Green letter boxes are installed at selected post offices and at other public places for posting the local mail. The main objective of this channel is to segregate the local mail for its speedy processing and expeditious delivery.
Business channel Business channel comprises first-class unregistered letter mail posted by corporate bodies including government and semi-government institutions at the counter of a designated post office or a mail office. If the quantum to be mailed at a time exceeds 2,000, it is required to be pre-sorted by the customer based on the local parameters of the place of posting.
Bulk mail channel Postings exceeding 250 articles in case of registered mail or 2,000 pieces of unregistered mail are called bulk mail postings. Bulk mail has to be necessarily pre-sorted in registered bundles (for registered mail) and labelled bundles (for unregistered mail) as per the specified sorting pattern. There are designated post-offices called corporate post offices which are authorised to accept bulk mail.
Periodical channel This is a separate channel to ensure speedy transmission of newspapers and periodicals which are time-sensitive and are posted in bulk. This channel is operated in metro cities and major towns where heavy volume of such mail is received.
Local mail is segmented from non-local mail in order to ensure a dedicated mail transmission system catering to the special customer needs. For prioritisation in transmission non-local mail is further segmented as: household mail, official mail, corporate mail, patrika and periodical mail, packets and parcel. First-class household and official mails have been identified as priority mail.
The following mail channels have been introduced in cities and larger towns.
Rajdhani channel This channel was introduced in 1994 for transmission of mail from Delhi to six state capitals. The remaining state capitals were covered by August 1995. The Rajdhani channel aims at catering to mails emanating from Delhi and meant for the state capitals and vice versa. Yellowcoloured letter boxes have been installed for such letters.
Metro channel This channel was also introduced in 1994 to handle inter-metro first-class mail between Bangalore, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad and Mumbai. In these cities light blue-coloured letter boxes have been installed especially for such letters.
Green channel Special arrangements exist in all major cities for expeditious delivery of 10'cal mail through this system. Unregistered first-class mail emanating from a town and meant for delivery within that town are delivered the next day of posting. Green letter boxes are installed at selected post offices and at other public places for posting the local mail. The main objective of this channel is to segregate the local mail for its speedy processing and expeditious delivery.
Business channel Business channel comprises first-class unregistered letter mail posted by corporate bodies including government and semi-government institutions at the counter of a designated post office or a mail office. If the quantum to be mailed at a time exceeds 2,000, it is required to be pre-sorted by the customer based on the local parameters of the place of posting.
Bulk mail channel Postings exceeding 250 articles in case of registered mail or 2,000 pieces of unregistered mail are called bulk mail postings. Bulk mail has to be necessarily pre-sorted in registered bundles (for registered mail) and labelled bundles (for unregistered mail) as per the specified sorting pattern. There are designated post-offices called corporate post offices which are authorised to accept bulk mail.
Periodical channel This is a separate channel to ensure speedy transmission of newspapers and periodicals which are time-sensitive and are posted in bulk. This channel is operated in metro cities and major towns where heavy volume of such mail is received.
Postal System
Postal System in India It may be recalled that the postal system of India was used solely for official purposes till 1837 when the postal services were opened to the public. The first postage stamp was issued in Karachi in 1852, valid only in the Sind province. The Indian Post Office was reorganised as an institution in 1854 when 700 post offices were already in existence. The statute governing the postal services in the country is the Indian Post Office Act, 1898. It vests the government with the exclusive privilege of collecting, carrying and delivering letters within the country. However, now private courier services have been allowed.
In 2008, the India Post adopted a new logo. After 150 years of its existence the India Post has witnessed a sevenfold growth in the postal network. India has the largest postal network in the world. On an average, a post office serves an area of 21.09 sq.km and a population of 6,602. Post offices in rural areas are opened subject to satisfaction of norms regarding population, income and distance laid down by the department for the purpose. The element of subsidy involved in opening post offices in hilly, desert and inaccessible areas is to the extent of 85 per cent of the cost, whereas the subsidy in openinf a post office in normal rural
areas is to the ~xtent of 663 per cent of the cost.
The postal network consists of four categories of post offices, viz., head post offices, sub-post offices, extradepartmental sub-post offices and extra-departmental branch post offices. All categories of post offices offer similar postal services, with the delivery function being restricted to only earmarked offices. In terms of management control, accounts are consolidated progressively from branch post office to sub-post office and finally in head post office.
The postal network in India (constituting the largest in the world) continues to fulfil its universal service obligations of making basic services available to all. The postal services continue to run into deficit. This is mainly because the emphasis is on the social objective.
The long-term objective of the Department of Postal Services is to locate a post office within three kilometres of every village and to provide a facility of a letter box in every village with a population of over 500.
In 2008, the India Post adopted a new logo. After 150 years of its existence the India Post has witnessed a sevenfold growth in the postal network. India has the largest postal network in the world. On an average, a post office serves an area of 21.09 sq.km and a population of 6,602. Post offices in rural areas are opened subject to satisfaction of norms regarding population, income and distance laid down by the department for the purpose. The element of subsidy involved in opening post offices in hilly, desert and inaccessible areas is to the extent of 85 per cent of the cost, whereas the subsidy in openinf a post office in normal rural
areas is to the ~xtent of 663 per cent of the cost.
The postal network consists of four categories of post offices, viz., head post offices, sub-post offices, extradepartmental sub-post offices and extra-departmental branch post offices. All categories of post offices offer similar postal services, with the delivery function being restricted to only earmarked offices. In terms of management control, accounts are consolidated progressively from branch post office to sub-post office and finally in head post office.
The postal network in India (constituting the largest in the world) continues to fulfil its universal service obligations of making basic services available to all. The postal services continue to run into deficit. This is mainly because the emphasis is on the social objective.
The long-term objective of the Department of Postal Services is to locate a post office within three kilometres of every village and to provide a facility of a letter box in every village with a population of over 500.
POSTAL SYSTEM
POSTAL SYSTEM Postal system may be defined as an institution, usually under the control of a governmental or quasi-governmental agency, that makes it possible to send a letter, packet, or parcel to any addressee, in the same country or abroad, with the expectation that it will be received.
The earliest references to postal systems are from Egypt in 2000 BC and the Chou dynasty in China 1,000 years later. China is also believed to have developed the first post house relay system in the world. However, the origin of the development of modem postal system may be traced to the early eighteenth century when a programme to improve the condition of public roads in Great Britain greatly increased the speed at which mail travelled. In 1784, John Palmer introduced mail coaches. The mail was first carried by rail from Liverpool to Manchester in 1830. Another major milestone in postal progress in the nineteenth century was the idea, first proposed by the British ,educator and tax reformer, Rowland Hill, in 1837, of charging a single uniform rate for delivery based on weight rather than distance and using prepaid adhesive postage stamps. In 1853, Britain introduced the first post boxes. In 1855, it first installed post boxes in London. The Post Office Savings Bank was begun in 1861, and private telegraph services were taken over by the post office in Britain. The introduction of steamships and rail-roads in the nineteenth century also greatly facilitated the delivery of mail between nations.
The two most significant advancements of the twentieth century were the development of reliable airmail service and the introduction of automated mail handling. Mail wa's carried unofficially by Claude Grahame White, a British pilot, on a flight from Blackpool to Southport, in England. In 1911, a French pilot, Henri Pequet, carried mail from Allahabad to Naini in India; and a regular airmail service was set up. Mail flights in Britain and the USA also began in 1911. In the USA, a regular trans-continental service was introduced in 1924. Airmail services in Australia began in the 1920s. The first airmail flight between Australia and Britain took place in 1934.
In recent years, post-offices in industrial countries have followed a policy of providing more automation in the handling of mail to provide customers with a better service. There has been an increase in the number of private carriers of circulars, catalogues, magazines and merchandise samples, although private firms are not normally allowed to handle ordinary mail. Private parcel carriers also compete with the post office. The growth of elettronic postal services has been a major development.
The earliest references to postal systems are from Egypt in 2000 BC and the Chou dynasty in China 1,000 years later. China is also believed to have developed the first post house relay system in the world. However, the origin of the development of modem postal system may be traced to the early eighteenth century when a programme to improve the condition of public roads in Great Britain greatly increased the speed at which mail travelled. In 1784, John Palmer introduced mail coaches. The mail was first carried by rail from Liverpool to Manchester in 1830. Another major milestone in postal progress in the nineteenth century was the idea, first proposed by the British ,educator and tax reformer, Rowland Hill, in 1837, of charging a single uniform rate for delivery based on weight rather than distance and using prepaid adhesive postage stamps. In 1853, Britain introduced the first post boxes. In 1855, it first installed post boxes in London. The Post Office Savings Bank was begun in 1861, and private telegraph services were taken over by the post office in Britain. The introduction of steamships and rail-roads in the nineteenth century also greatly facilitated the delivery of mail between nations.
The two most significant advancements of the twentieth century were the development of reliable airmail service and the introduction of automated mail handling. Mail wa's carried unofficially by Claude Grahame White, a British pilot, on a flight from Blackpool to Southport, in England. In 1911, a French pilot, Henri Pequet, carried mail from Allahabad to Naini in India; and a regular airmail service was set up. Mail flights in Britain and the USA also began in 1911. In the USA, a regular trans-continental service was introduced in 1924. Airmail services in Australia began in the 1920s. The first airmail flight between Australia and Britain took place in 1934.
In recent years, post-offices in industrial countries have followed a policy of providing more automation in the handling of mail to provide customers with a better service. There has been an increase in the number of private carriers of circulars, catalogues, magazines and merchandise samples, although private firms are not normally allowed to handle ordinary mail. Private parcel carriers also compete with the post office. The growth of elettronic postal services has been a major development.
COMMUNICATIONS
COMMUNICATIONS
The expansion and development of the modern world in social, economic and political fields would not have been possible without the development of communication technology. The rapid development of communication technology has been aptly termed as a 'revolution'. The communication technology comprises various modes such as the postal network, telecommunications and information technology.
The communications system includes posts and telegraph, telecommunication system, broadcasting, television and information services. The communication system serves to link various segments of the market, and supplies the information and data needed by participants in the soci~economic development process.
The expansion and development of the modern world in social, economic and political fields would not have been possible without the development of communication technology. The rapid development of communication technology has been aptly termed as a 'revolution'. The communication technology comprises various modes such as the postal network, telecommunications and information technology.
The communications system includes posts and telegraph, telecommunication system, broadcasting, television and information services. The communication system serves to link various segments of the market, and supplies the information and data needed by participants in the soci~economic development process.
E. PIPELINE TRANSPORT
E. PIPELINE TRANSPORT Pipelines provide the most convenient mode of transport for petroleum, petroleum products and gas in bulk quantities over a long distance. Nowadays, solid minerals too are transported by pipelines after converting them into slurry.
Major Pipeline Network in the World Although pipeline transportation is being employed by several countries, the North American, Western Europe and Middle East countries are the regions with the largest network of pipelines. In America, pipeline network consists of four major systems: (i) the gas pipeline system carrying on natural gas; (ii) the system carrying petroleum and refined products; (iii) the system carrying solids, such as coal; and (iv) the system carrying water.
In the USA, there is a dense network of pipelines for carrying petroleum. A famous pipeline of the USA is known as "Big Inch", who carries mineral oil from the wells of the Gulf of Mexico to the north-eastern part.
In Europe, Russia, Germany, UK, France, Italy and Denmark have large pipeline network. One of the longest pipelines in Europe runs from Marseilles (France) to Karlsrube (Germany), covering a distance of over 800 km. The Russian system of pipelines, is .one of the largest networks of pipelines in the world. This system includes crude pipelines, product pipelines and gas pipelines. One of the longest pipelines, called COMECON, in the world connects oil wells of the Ural and the Volga regions to the countries of East Europe.
The Middle East pipeline network functions basically as a link between the production regions in the desert and the refineries on the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea. Oman, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq have fairly well developed system of pipelines.
Pipeline Networks in India In India, solid minerals are transported through pipelines in two areas: iron ore in the form of slurry is carried from Kudremukh to Mangalore port, and rock phosphate concentrates are taken from Maton mines to Debari smelter plant in Udaipur district of Rajasthan. Mineral oil is carried from Kandla port to Koyali and Mathura refineries through a pipeline.
The HaziraBijaipur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) pipeline has linked Hazira on the west coast and Jagdishpur in Sultanpur district (Uttar Pradesh). The 1,730 km long pipeline carries gas to a number of steel plants, viz., Sawai Madhopur in Rajasthan, Auraiya (Etawah), Aonla (Bareilly) and Shahjahanpur (Uttar Pradesh). A new pipeline was laid from Salaya in Gujarat to Mathura via Viramgam which covers a distance of 1,220 km. Pipe connection also exists from Barauni to Kanpur and Delhi. Another such line links Mathura and Jalandhar via Delhi and Ambala. Important pipelines also link Naharkatiya oil fields to Guwahati and Siliguri.
Major Pipeline Network in the World Although pipeline transportation is being employed by several countries, the North American, Western Europe and Middle East countries are the regions with the largest network of pipelines. In America, pipeline network consists of four major systems: (i) the gas pipeline system carrying on natural gas; (ii) the system carrying petroleum and refined products; (iii) the system carrying solids, such as coal; and (iv) the system carrying water.
In the USA, there is a dense network of pipelines for carrying petroleum. A famous pipeline of the USA is known as "Big Inch", who carries mineral oil from the wells of the Gulf of Mexico to the north-eastern part.
In Europe, Russia, Germany, UK, France, Italy and Denmark have large pipeline network. One of the longest pipelines in Europe runs from Marseilles (France) to Karlsrube (Germany), covering a distance of over 800 km. The Russian system of pipelines, is .one of the largest networks of pipelines in the world. This system includes crude pipelines, product pipelines and gas pipelines. One of the longest pipelines, called COMECON, in the world connects oil wells of the Ural and the Volga regions to the countries of East Europe.
The Middle East pipeline network functions basically as a link between the production regions in the desert and the refineries on the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea. Oman, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq have fairly well developed system of pipelines.
Pipeline Networks in India In India, solid minerals are transported through pipelines in two areas: iron ore in the form of slurry is carried from Kudremukh to Mangalore port, and rock phosphate concentrates are taken from Maton mines to Debari smelter plant in Udaipur district of Rajasthan. Mineral oil is carried from Kandla port to Koyali and Mathura refineries through a pipeline.
The HaziraBijaipur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) pipeline has linked Hazira on the west coast and Jagdishpur in Sultanpur district (Uttar Pradesh). The 1,730 km long pipeline carries gas to a number of steel plants, viz., Sawai Madhopur in Rajasthan, Auraiya (Etawah), Aonla (Bareilly) and Shahjahanpur (Uttar Pradesh). A new pipeline was laid from Salaya in Gujarat to Mathura via Viramgam which covers a distance of 1,220 km. Pipe connection also exists from Barauni to Kanpur and Delhi. Another such line links Mathura and Jalandhar via Delhi and Ambala. Important pipelines also link Naharkatiya oil fields to Guwahati and Siliguri.
Indian Airways
Indian Airways The scheduled civil air transport in India commenced during 1929-30 when the British, French and the Dutch extended their services to and beyond India. The first internal air service was established between Karachi and Chennai via Mumbai in 1922. By the beginning of the Second World War, major cities like Karachi, Lahore, Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai had scheduled air services operated by private companies. At the time of independence, there were four companies. By 1951, four more private companies were operating air services. The Air Transport Enquiry Committee set up in 1950 recommended the merger of these eight companies into a corporation. Under the Air Corporation Act, 1953, the Indian Airlines Corporation was set up to operate all internal civil air services and Air India International was constituted for managing international air transport.
The Government ended the monopoly of Indian Airlines and Air India on the scheduled operations by repealing the Air Corporation Act, 1953. There are at present ten scheduled airlines operating on the domestic network rendering the passengers a wide choice of flights. Apart from this, more than 40 companies are holding nonscheduled operators permit. The policy on domestic air transport service was approved in April 1997 according to which barriers to entry and exit from this sector have been removed. Recently, two private scheduled airlines, Le., M/s Sahara Airlines and Jet Airways were permitted to operate on international sector.
The main trunk routes having high density of traffic are operated by Air Bus and Boeing aircraft. The remote areas are served by smaller aircraft. A third airlineVayudoot-was incorporated as a private limited company in January 1981. The Pawan Hans Limited was set up in October 1985 to provide transport services for short distances.
The activities of civil aviation fall under three broad areas-operational, infrastructural and regulator-cum-development. Domestic air services in the country are provided by the Indian Airlines now renamed Indian and its subsidiary Alliance Air, and private airlines (scheduled and non-scheduled), while the international services are pro~ vided by Air India, and. other international airlines operating in India. Pawan Hans Helicopters Ltd. basically provides helicopter support services to the petrQleum sector and connects the remote and inaccessible areas of the (North-East).
It also provides air support services to several customers which include Government of Punjab, Government of Arunachal Pradesh, the Lakshadweep
Administration, Gas Authority of India Ltd. and, in addition, also caters to the helicopter requirements of the private sector.
The Directorate General of Civil Aviation operates the civil airports in India.
The Civil Aviation Training Centre is at Allahabad. It comprises an aerodrome school and air traffic facilities. The Fire Service Training Centre is located in Kolkata. The Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Academy (IGRUA) is located at Fursatgunj (Uttar Pradesh). It provides training facilities to commercial pilots.
Infrastructural facilities are provided by the Airports Authority of India (AAI), which was formed on April 1, 1995 by merging the International Airports Authority of India and National Airports Authority. The AAI is responsible for providing safe, efficient air traffic services and aeronautical communication services for effective control of air traffic in the Indian air space. It controls and manages the entire Indian air space extending even beyond the territorial limits of the country, as accepted by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).
The Government ended the monopoly of Indian Airlines and Air India on the scheduled operations by repealing the Air Corporation Act, 1953. There are at present ten scheduled airlines operating on the domestic network rendering the passengers a wide choice of flights. Apart from this, more than 40 companies are holding nonscheduled operators permit. The policy on domestic air transport service was approved in April 1997 according to which barriers to entry and exit from this sector have been removed. Recently, two private scheduled airlines, Le., M/s Sahara Airlines and Jet Airways were permitted to operate on international sector.
The main trunk routes having high density of traffic are operated by Air Bus and Boeing aircraft. The remote areas are served by smaller aircraft. A third airlineVayudoot-was incorporated as a private limited company in January 1981. The Pawan Hans Limited was set up in October 1985 to provide transport services for short distances.
The activities of civil aviation fall under three broad areas-operational, infrastructural and regulator-cum-development. Domestic air services in the country are provided by the Indian Airlines now renamed Indian and its subsidiary Alliance Air, and private airlines (scheduled and non-scheduled), while the international services are pro~ vided by Air India, and. other international airlines operating in India. Pawan Hans Helicopters Ltd. basically provides helicopter support services to the petrQleum sector and connects the remote and inaccessible areas of the (North-East).
It also provides air support services to several customers which include Government of Punjab, Government of Arunachal Pradesh, the Lakshadweep
Administration, Gas Authority of India Ltd. and, in addition, also caters to the helicopter requirements of the private sector.
The Directorate General of Civil Aviation operates the civil airports in India.
The Civil Aviation Training Centre is at Allahabad. It comprises an aerodrome school and air traffic facilities. The Fire Service Training Centre is located in Kolkata. The Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Academy (IGRUA) is located at Fursatgunj (Uttar Pradesh). It provides training facilities to commercial pilots.
Infrastructural facilities are provided by the Airports Authority of India (AAI), which was formed on April 1, 1995 by merging the International Airports Authority of India and National Airports Authority. The AAI is responsible for providing safe, efficient air traffic services and aeronautical communication services for effective control of air traffic in the Indian air space. It controls and manages the entire Indian air space extending even beyond the territorial limits of the country, as accepted by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).
D. AIR TRANSPORT
D. AIR TRANSPORT Commercial airlines became a mode of travel only after the First World War. The first regular air service was begun between London and Paris in 1919. Today; the greatest amount of air traffic is found in the USA with large number of international and internal flights. There are four large air corporations in the USA the United Air Lines, Trans-World Airlines, Pan-American Airlines and Eastern Air Lines.
The busiest airports are those of New York, Chicago, Washington DC, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Atlanta, Boston and Miami. The largest airline company of Canada is the Trans-Canada Airline. Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver are the busiest air terminals. Next to the United States, the greatest volume of air traffic is found in Europe, especially at London, Paris, Rome, Madrid, Shannon (southern Ireland), Berlin, Warsaw, Vienna, Geneva and Moscow. London's Heathrow airport is the busiest in the world. Most of the European countries have their own national airlines, the most important of which include British Airways, Lufthansa (Germany), Alitalia, Air France, KLM (the Dutch airline) and SAS (jointly operated by the Scandinavian countries-Norway, Sweden and Denmark). Japan Airlines, Air India, Quantas (Australia), South African Airways also have important internal and international air routes. The Russian airlines is the Aeroflot.
The busiest airports are those of New York, Chicago, Washington DC, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Atlanta, Boston and Miami. The largest airline company of Canada is the Trans-Canada Airline. Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver are the busiest air terminals. Next to the United States, the greatest volume of air traffic is found in Europe, especially at London, Paris, Rome, Madrid, Shannon (southern Ireland), Berlin, Warsaw, Vienna, Geneva and Moscow. London's Heathrow airport is the busiest in the world. Most of the European countries have their own national airlines, the most important of which include British Airways, Lufthansa (Germany), Alitalia, Air France, KLM (the Dutch airline) and SAS (jointly operated by the Scandinavian countries-Norway, Sweden and Denmark). Japan Airlines, Air India, Quantas (Australia), South African Airways also have important internal and international air routes. The Russian airlines is the Aeroflot.
Coastal Shipping
Coastal Shipping: Coastal shipping is an energy efficient, environmental-friendly and economical mode of transport in the Indian transport network and a crucial component for the development of domestic industry and trade. India, with her 7,516.6 km long coastline studded with 12 major ports and 186 non-major ports providing
congenial and favourable conditions for the development. of this alternate mode of transport.
The National Shipping Board is a statutory body set up under the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958.
The Shipping Corporation of India (SCI) Ltd. was formed on October 2, 1961. The present authorised capital of the company is Rs 450 crore and paid up capital is Rs 282.30 crore. The status of SCI has been changed from a private limited company to public limited from September 18, 1992. The SCI was conferred 'Mini Ratna' status by the Government of India in February 2000. At present, the government is holding 80.12 per cent of the share capital. and the balance is held by financial institutions, public and others (NRIs, corporate bodies, etc.).
India has nine shipyards in the central public sector, and 19 small shipyards in the private sector to cater to the needs of the shipping sector. There are 17 dry docks in the country. The Cochin Shipyard at Cochin; Hindustan Shipyard at Visakhapatnam; Garden Reach Ship Builders and Engineers at Kolkata; and Mazagaon Docks at Mumbai are major shipbuilding areas located in public sector. The Hooghly Dock and Port Engineers Limited are located at Kolkata.
congenial and favourable conditions for the development. of this alternate mode of transport.
The National Shipping Board is a statutory body set up under the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958.
The Shipping Corporation of India (SCI) Ltd. was formed on October 2, 1961. The present authorised capital of the company is Rs 450 crore and paid up capital is Rs 282.30 crore. The status of SCI has been changed from a private limited company to public limited from September 18, 1992. The SCI was conferred 'Mini Ratna' status by the Government of India in February 2000. At present, the government is holding 80.12 per cent of the share capital. and the balance is held by financial institutions, public and others (NRIs, corporate bodies, etc.).
India has nine shipyards in the central public sector, and 19 small shipyards in the private sector to cater to the needs of the shipping sector. There are 17 dry docks in the country. The Cochin Shipyard at Cochin; Hindustan Shipyard at Visakhapatnam; Garden Reach Ship Builders and Engineers at Kolkata; and Mazagaon Docks at Mumbai are major shipbuilding areas located in public sector. The Hooghly Dock and Port Engineers Limited are located at Kolkata.
Shipping in India
Shipping in India The importance of shipping in the transport sector of Indian economy can be gauged from the fac~ that from approximately 95 per cent of the country's"tJade volume, about 68 per cent in terms of value is moved by sea. India has the largest merchant shipping fleet among developing countries and ranks 19th in the world in shipping tonnage.
The salient features of India's shipping policy are the promotion of national shipping to increase self-reliance in the carriage of the country's overseas trade and protection of stakeholders' interest in EXIM trade. India's national flagships provide an essential means of transport for crude oil and petroleum product imports. National shipping makes significant contribution to the foreign exchange earnings of the country.
The salient features of India's shipping policy are the promotion of national shipping to increase self-reliance in the carriage of the country's overseas trade and protection of stakeholders' interest in EXIM trade. India's national flagships provide an essential means of transport for crude oil and petroleum product imports. National shipping makes significant contribution to the foreign exchange earnings of the country.
Minor and Intermediate Ports
Minor and Intermediate Ports There are about 200 such ports which include Redi port (Maharashtra), Kakinada (Andhra Pradesh) and Kozhikode (Kerala). Other ports proposed to be developed as minor ports are Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep and PondicJ;1erry. These ports can relieve the overloaded major ports and can be used as bases for deep-sea fishing. These ports mainly serve coastal trade and support passenger traffic where there is no proper rail or road link. While major ports are under the purview of the Central government, minor/intermediate ports come under the jurisdiction of the respective state governments.
Ports in India
Ports in India There are 12 major ports and about 200 non-major ports in India. A survey of 12 major ports in India and the goods traffic handled by them is given below.
On the West Coast Kandla (Gujarat); Mumbai (Maharashtra); Marmagao (Goa); New Mangalore (Karnataka); Co chin (Kerala); Jawaharlal Nehru Port near Mumbai (earlier called Nhava Sheva).
On the East Coast Tuticorin and Chennai (Tamil Nadu); Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh); Para deep (Orissa); and Kolkata-Haldia (West Bengal). Ennore in Tamil Nadu was notified as a major port in May 1999 and declared open In February 2001.
In 2008; the Krishnapatam Port in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh was dedicated to the nation. The port will playa key role in further envisaging trade betwecn India and the Gulf region, with its dedicated iron are handling units, coal jetties and general cargo handling facilities. The first phase of the port opened in July 2008 and is scheduled to be completed in 2011. It would be one of the most modernised port in the country.
Among major ports, Mlt1llbai handles the maximum traffic. It is a natural harbour. It handles over one-fifth of the total traffic of ports, mostly petroleum products and dry cargo. Kandla is a tidal port and a free trade zone has been set up here. Important traffic handled are crude oil, petroleum products, edible oil, foodgrains, salt, cotton, etc. Mannagao occupies the fifth position in terms of total quantum of traffic handled. From New Mansalorl', iron ore of Kundremukh is being exported. Other items are petroleum products, fertilisers, molasses, etc. Cochin is a natural harbour dealing in fertilisers, petroleum and general cargn. Tuticorin handles mainly coal, saIt, edible oil, dry cdrgo and petroleum products. Chennai is the second largest port in the volume of traffic handled. Important items are petroleum products, crude oil, fertilisers, iron ore and dry cargo. Visaklzapatnam is the deepest port. An outer h,ubour has been developed for exporting iron ore and a berth for crude oil is located here. Kolkata is a riverine port handling diversified commodities. Paradeep handles iron orc and some quantities of coal and dry cargo. lawalwrlnl Nelzm Port is equipped with modern facilities having mechanised container berths for handling dry bulk cargo and service berths.
The major ports handle about 90 per cent of the allIndia port throughput and thus bear the brunt of sea-borne trade.
On the West Coast Kandla (Gujarat); Mumbai (Maharashtra); Marmagao (Goa); New Mangalore (Karnataka); Co chin (Kerala); Jawaharlal Nehru Port near Mumbai (earlier called Nhava Sheva).
On the East Coast Tuticorin and Chennai (Tamil Nadu); Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh); Para deep (Orissa); and Kolkata-Haldia (West Bengal). Ennore in Tamil Nadu was notified as a major port in May 1999 and declared open In February 2001.
In 2008; the Krishnapatam Port in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh was dedicated to the nation. The port will playa key role in further envisaging trade betwecn India and the Gulf region, with its dedicated iron are handling units, coal jetties and general cargo handling facilities. The first phase of the port opened in July 2008 and is scheduled to be completed in 2011. It would be one of the most modernised port in the country.
Among major ports, Mlt1llbai handles the maximum traffic. It is a natural harbour. It handles over one-fifth of the total traffic of ports, mostly petroleum products and dry cargo. Kandla is a tidal port and a free trade zone has been set up here. Important traffic handled are crude oil, petroleum products, edible oil, foodgrains, salt, cotton, etc. Mannagao occupies the fifth position in terms of total quantum of traffic handled. From New Mansalorl', iron ore of Kundremukh is being exported. Other items are petroleum products, fertilisers, molasses, etc. Cochin is a natural harbour dealing in fertilisers, petroleum and general cargn. Tuticorin handles mainly coal, saIt, edible oil, dry cdrgo and petroleum products. Chennai is the second largest port in the volume of traffic handled. Important items are petroleum products, crude oil, fertilisers, iron ore and dry cargo. Visaklzapatnam is the deepest port. An outer h,ubour has been developed for exporting iron ore and a berth for crude oil is located here. Kolkata is a riverine port handling diversified commodities. Paradeep handles iron orc and some quantities of coal and dry cargo. lawalwrlnl Nelzm Port is equipped with modern facilities having mechanised container berths for handling dry bulk cargo and service berths.
The major ports handle about 90 per cent of the allIndia port throughput and thus bear the brunt of sea-borne trade.
Ocean Transport
Ocean Transport The sea represents one of the oldes and cheapest modes for transporting bulky goods. The us' of containers has made it easy to transfer goods to lane transport by rail or road at the world's major ports. Th. oceans are open highways with few natural barriers, bu the bulk of the world's trade passes along certain well marked routes.
Major Ocean Trade Routes The major ocean tradt routes in the world are as follows:
(a) The North Atlantic Route The North Atlantic routE links the world's major ports such as London, Rotterdam, Hamburg, New York, Yokohama, Singapore, Colomboj San Francisco and Honolulu. On both sides of the Nort~ Atlantic there are regions of dense population and intensel
industrial activity. The ports on the North Sea, the BaJtic Sea and the English Channel are the outlets of thea,?,f\ cultural and industrial regions of Europe. Manuufactured items are exported from these ports to the United stateS and Canada. In north-eastern North America there are large ocean terminals- New York, Boston, Philadelphiafavourably located for trade around the world and with Western Europe in particular. The external trade of the North Atlantic region is greater than all the trade of the rest of the world.
(b) The Cape of Good Hope Route The Cape of Good Hope .route was once the subsidiary alternative to the Suez Canal route, but because of its long and circuitous nature, it was avoided by most ships. But when the Suez Canal was closed in 1967 oil tankers and liners had to take this route. Even after the Suez Canal re-opened in 1975 much trade has continued to take this route, partly because tankers and other vessels are nowadays much larger.
(c) The Mediterranean-Suez-Asiatic Route With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Mediterranean-SuezAsiatic route linking Europe with the Far East gained importance. The route was once considered the 'life-line' of Britain because oil supplies from West Asia and tropical raw materials and food-stuffs from the Asiatic colonies came through the Suez. When the Panama Canal opened in 1913, SOme traffic, especially that for New Zealand and the Far East, was diverted, but traffic on the Suez Canal route continued to increase. Oil is sent across the Arabian desert by pipelines from the Persian Gulf oil-fields to the Mediterranean terminals at Banias, Tripoli and Saida (Sidon), for shipment to Europe, instead of going by tanker round the Cape of Good Hope. This is an economical as well as the fastest way of transporting oil to Europe.
(d) The Panama Canal-West Indian-Central American Route The completion of the Panama Canal eliminated the long and dangerous voyage round the stormy Cape Horn. "The Panama Canal is the gateway to the Pacific." It has benefited countries on both Atlantic and Pacific coasts, facilitating the trade in minerals, oil, foodstuffs, raw materials and manufactured products. But it is the traffic between the east and west coasts of the United States that has benefited the most. The Panama route has also benefited trade in the West Indian islands and the Pacific states of North, Central and South America.
(e) The South Atlantic Route The ocean traffic in the South Atlantic is less than that in the North Atlantic, because it connects regions of low population densities and limited economic development. Only south-eastern Brazil and parts of South Africa have large-scale industrial development.
(f) The Trans-Pacific Route Trade across the North Pacific Ocean traverses several routes which converge at Honolulu, 'the cross-roads of the Pacific', for refuelling and servicing. The distance is, however, halved if one takes the direct route farther north in a great circle, which links Vancouver and Yokohama without touching the Hawaiian islands.
Major Ocean Trade Routes The major ocean tradt routes in the world are as follows:
(a) The North Atlantic Route The North Atlantic routE links the world's major ports such as London, Rotterdam, Hamburg, New York, Yokohama, Singapore, Colomboj San Francisco and Honolulu. On both sides of the Nort~ Atlantic there are regions of dense population and intensel
industrial activity. The ports on the North Sea, the BaJtic Sea and the English Channel are the outlets of thea,?,f\ cultural and industrial regions of Europe. Manuufactured items are exported from these ports to the United stateS and Canada. In north-eastern North America there are large ocean terminals- New York, Boston, Philadelphiafavourably located for trade around the world and with Western Europe in particular. The external trade of the North Atlantic region is greater than all the trade of the rest of the world.
(b) The Cape of Good Hope Route The Cape of Good Hope .route was once the subsidiary alternative to the Suez Canal route, but because of its long and circuitous nature, it was avoided by most ships. But when the Suez Canal was closed in 1967 oil tankers and liners had to take this route. Even after the Suez Canal re-opened in 1975 much trade has continued to take this route, partly because tankers and other vessels are nowadays much larger.
(c) The Mediterranean-Suez-Asiatic Route With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Mediterranean-SuezAsiatic route linking Europe with the Far East gained importance. The route was once considered the 'life-line' of Britain because oil supplies from West Asia and tropical raw materials and food-stuffs from the Asiatic colonies came through the Suez. When the Panama Canal opened in 1913, SOme traffic, especially that for New Zealand and the Far East, was diverted, but traffic on the Suez Canal route continued to increase. Oil is sent across the Arabian desert by pipelines from the Persian Gulf oil-fields to the Mediterranean terminals at Banias, Tripoli and Saida (Sidon), for shipment to Europe, instead of going by tanker round the Cape of Good Hope. This is an economical as well as the fastest way of transporting oil to Europe.
(d) The Panama Canal-West Indian-Central American Route The completion of the Panama Canal eliminated the long and dangerous voyage round the stormy Cape Horn. "The Panama Canal is the gateway to the Pacific." It has benefited countries on both Atlantic and Pacific coasts, facilitating the trade in minerals, oil, foodstuffs, raw materials and manufactured products. But it is the traffic between the east and west coasts of the United States that has benefited the most. The Panama route has also benefited trade in the West Indian islands and the Pacific states of North, Central and South America.
(e) The South Atlantic Route The ocean traffic in the South Atlantic is less than that in the North Atlantic, because it connects regions of low population densities and limited economic development. Only south-eastern Brazil and parts of South Africa have large-scale industrial development.
(f) The Trans-Pacific Route Trade across the North Pacific Ocean traverses several routes which converge at Honolulu, 'the cross-roads of the Pacific', for refuelling and servicing. The distance is, however, halved if one takes the direct route farther north in a great circle, which links Vancouver and Yokohama without touching the Hawaiian islands.
National Waterways
National Waterways The Ganga between AllahabadHaldia (1620 km), the Sadiya-Dhubri stretch of River Brahmaputra (891 km) and the Kollam-Kottapuram stretch of West Coast Canal along with Champakara and Udyogmandal Canals (205 km) in Kerala have so far been declared as National Waterways and are being developed for navigation by Inland Waterways Authority of India.
Following are the important navigable waterways in India:
1. Ganga-Bhagirathi (upper course of Hooghly)Hooghly : This section has a gradual gradient, gentle flow and is densely populated.
2. Brahmaputra and its tributaries
3. Deltaic courses of Mahanadi, Krishna and Godavari
4. Barak river (in the North-East)
5. Rivers of Goa-Mandovi and Zuari
6. Backwaters (kayals) of Kerala
7. Canals such as
(i) Buckingham canal-from Kommanur canal of Krishna Delta to Marakkanam (100 km south of Chennai),
(ii) Cumberjua canal-links Mandavi and Zuari in Goa and
(iii) Vedarraniyam canal-lin~ Nagapattinam port with Vedarraniyam.
8. Lower reaches of Narmada and Tapti
9. Creeks of west flowing rivers on the west coas south of Mumbai, such as Kali, Sharavati and Netravat
Current Status Presently, the inland water transport i India is restricted to a few stretches in the Ganga-Bhagirathl Hooghly rivers, the Brahmaputra, the Barak river, th rivers in Goa, the backwaters in Kerala, inland waters iJ Mumbai and the deltaic'regions of the Godavari-Krishn rivers. Besides the organised operations by mechanisec vessels, country boats of various capacities also operate il various rivers and canals.
Following are the important navigable waterways in India:
1. Ganga-Bhagirathi (upper course of Hooghly)Hooghly : This section has a gradual gradient, gentle flow and is densely populated.
2. Brahmaputra and its tributaries
3. Deltaic courses of Mahanadi, Krishna and Godavari
4. Barak river (in the North-East)
5. Rivers of Goa-Mandovi and Zuari
6. Backwaters (kayals) of Kerala
7. Canals such as
(i) Buckingham canal-from Kommanur canal of Krishna Delta to Marakkanam (100 km south of Chennai),
(ii) Cumberjua canal-links Mandavi and Zuari in Goa and
(iii) Vedarraniyam canal-lin~ Nagapattinam port with Vedarraniyam.
8. Lower reaches of Narmada and Tapti
9. Creeks of west flowing rivers on the west coas south of Mumbai, such as Kali, Sharavati and Netravat
Current Status Presently, the inland water transport i India is restricted to a few stretches in the Ganga-Bhagirathl Hooghly rivers, the Brahmaputra, the Barak river, th rivers in Goa, the backwaters in Kerala, inland waters iJ Mumbai and the deltaic'regions of the Godavari-Krishn rivers. Besides the organised operations by mechanisec vessels, country boats of various capacities also operate il various rivers and canals.
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