Friday, November 6, 2009
MASS COMMUNICATION IN INDIA
MASS COMMUNICATION IN INDIA In a country like ours, mass communication plays a vital role in creating awareness in people about national policies and programmes by providing information and education besides healthy entertainment. It helps people to be active partners in the nation-building endeavour. The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting is responsible for development and regulation of information, broadcasting and film sectors where as the Press Council of India regulates the press and the print media in the country. Different modes of mass communication such as the Akashvani, All India Radio, Doordarshan, newspapers, cinemas, etc., operating under the electronic and print media and various organisation associated with them are discussed in detail in the General Knowledge section.
Basic Services
Basic Services Based on the recommendations of TRAI, the government announced guidelines in 2001 for issue of licences, with unrestricted open entry, to new basic service operators in all the service areas, including the six service areas where private licencees already existed. The country is divided into 21 territorial service areas for the grant of basic service licence. National Long Distance (NLD) service was opened to the private sector from August 13, 2000. The International Long Distance (ILD) service is basically a network carriage service, providing international connectivity to the network operated by foreign carriers. In accordance with the NTP 1999, the government opened the International Long Distance Service from April 1, 2002 to the private operators. There is no restriction on the number of operators.
CELLULAR SERVICES The country is divided into 19 telecom circles service areas and four metro service areas for the cellular mobile telephone service. There are three private operators and one state-owned operator in each service area.
INTERNET SERVICES Internet Services are opened for private participation since November 1998. Any Indian registered company is eligible for getting the licence and no prior experience is required. Foreign equity up to 100 per cent is permitted for Internet services providers (ISPs) without gateways and up to 74 per cent is permitted for ISPs with gateways.
CELLULAR SERVICES The country is divided into 19 telecom circles service areas and four metro service areas for the cellular mobile telephone service. There are three private operators and one state-owned operator in each service area.
INTERNET SERVICES Internet Services are opened for private participation since November 1998. Any Indian registered company is eligible for getting the licence and no prior experience is required. Foreign equity up to 100 per cent is permitted for Internet services providers (ISPs) without gateways and up to 74 per cent is permitted for ISPs with gateways.
Regulatory Framework
Regulatory Framework In early 1997, the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) was established to regulate the telecommunication services and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
A separate disputes settlement body known as the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal has also been constituted for expeditious settlement of disputes.
A pilot scheme, Grameen Sanchar Sewak (GSS) Scheme was launched on December 24, 2002 through Grameen Dak Sewak Delivery Agents (GDSDA) of the Department of Posts (DOP), attached to the rural post offices. In this scheme, GDSDA volunteers are called Grameen Sanchar Sewaks (GSS), who carry a mobile fixed wireless terminal (FWT) with display unit in a (;:arry bag and visit door to door to provide telephone facility to the rural population in his routine beat in the villages.
A separate disputes settlement body known as the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal has also been constituted for expeditious settlement of disputes.
A pilot scheme, Grameen Sanchar Sewak (GSS) Scheme was launched on December 24, 2002 through Grameen Dak Sewak Delivery Agents (GDSDA) of the Department of Posts (DOP), attached to the rural post offices. In this scheme, GDSDA volunteers are called Grameen Sanchar Sewaks (GSS), who carry a mobile fixed wireless terminal (FWT) with display unit in a (;:arry bag and visit door to door to provide telephone facility to the rural population in his routine beat in the villages.
Telecommunications System in India
Telecommunications System in India India operates one of the largest telecommunications networks in the world. It includes communication through telephone, mobile and Internet. The provision of world class telecommunication infrastructure is the key to rapid economic and social development of the country. It is also anticipated that in the near future, a major part of the GDP of the country would be contributed by this sector.
In India, telecommunication services were introduced soon after the invention of telegraphy and telephone. The first telegraph line between Calcutta and Diamond Harbour was opened for traffic in 1851. By March 1884, telegraph messages could be sent from Agra to Calcutta. By 1900, telegraph and telephone. had started serving the Indian Railways. Telephone service was also introduced in Calcutta in 1881-82, barely six years after the invention of telephone. The first automatic exchange was commissioned at Simla in 1913-14 with a capacity of 700 lines.
Initially, the telephone exchanges were of manual type, which were subsequently upgraded to automatic electromechanical type. In the last 'one-and-a-half decade, a significant qualitative improvement has been brought about by inducting digital electronic exchanges in the network on a very large scale. Today all the telephone exchanges in the country are of electronic type.
In India, telecommunication services were introduced soon after the invention of telegraphy and telephone. The first telegraph line between Calcutta and Diamond Harbour was opened for traffic in 1851. By March 1884, telegraph messages could be sent from Agra to Calcutta. By 1900, telegraph and telephone. had started serving the Indian Railways. Telephone service was also introduced in Calcutta in 1881-82, barely six years after the invention of telephone. The first automatic exchange was commissioned at Simla in 1913-14 with a capacity of 700 lines.
Initially, the telephone exchanges were of manual type, which were subsequently upgraded to automatic electromechanical type. In the last 'one-and-a-half decade, a significant qualitative improvement has been brought about by inducting digital electronic exchanges in the network on a very large scale. Today all the telephone exchanges in the country are of electronic type.
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
TELECOMMUNICATIONS Telecommunications systems are devices and techniques used for the transmission of information via wire, optical fibre, optical wireless, or radio wave. These systems transfer a wide variety of information, including audio (e.g., voice and music), video (still-frame and full motion), computer (files and applications), and telegraphic data. In other words, radio, televisions, telephones and computer-based data exchange or retrieval systems are examples of telecommunications systems.
Telephone and telegraph networks (e.g. telex) have long been in operation. More recently, cable television and telemetry networks, such as those used in the remote
control of automobile traffic and widely distributed industrial operations, have become prominent. Rapid advances in computer technology also have led to a dramatic growth of data-retrieval and exchange networks. Computer-tocomputer communication has also become commonplace for owners of home computers. Subscribers to special information services can interact with a host computer to access educational and entertainment materials as well as news and stock-market reports.
Telephone and telegraph networks (e.g. telex) have long been in operation. More recently, cable television and telemetry networks, such as those used in the remote
control of automobile traffic and widely distributed industrial operations, have become prominent. Rapid advances in computer technology also have led to a dramatic growth of data-retrieval and exchange networks. Computer-tocomputer communication has also become commonplace for owners of home computers. Subscribers to special information services can interact with a host computer to access educational and entertainment materials as well as news and stock-market reports.
Modernisation' of Mail Services
Modernisation' of Mail Services As a part of the modernisation programme, computerisation of the registration sorting work in major mail offices has been undertaken. A beginning in this regard was made during the financial year 1995-96 by computerising registration sorting work at Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad and Chennai. Another area identified for computerisation is the Transit Mail Offices (TMOs). The TMOs have a vital role in the smooth handling and transmission of closed mailbags. To improve the ergonomics and ambience of the Mail offices, these are being modernised with better operational equipments and improved furniture. As a part of modemisation programme, computerisation of the Head Record Office (HRO) for proper maintenance of valuable records their prompt retrieval and efficient office management has also been undertaken.
International mail
International mail India has been a member of the Universal Postal Union (UPU) since 1876 and of the Asian Pacific Postal Union (APPU) since 1964. These organisations aim at extending, facilitating and improving postal relations among member-countries. India exchanges mail with more than two hundred countries by air and surface. With a view to improve the quality of surface mails, India initially introduced the Surface Air Lifted (SAL) Mail Service in respect of letters and parcels to four destinations, namely Germany, Great Britain, Singapore and the USA. In respect of parcels, this service has now been extended to more countries.
Mail system
Mail system First-class mail, viz., post cards, inland letter cards and envelopes, are given air lift, without any surcharge, between stations connected by air. Second-class mail, viz., book packets, registered newspapers and periodicals are carried by surface transport, Le., trains, buses and other means.
Local mail is segmented from non-local mail in order to ensure a dedicated mail transmission system catering to the special customer needs. For prioritisation in transmission non-local mail is further segmented as: household mail, official mail, corporate mail, patrika and periodical mail, packets and parcel. First-class household and official mails have been identified as priority mail.
The following mail channels have been introduced in cities and larger towns.
Rajdhani channel This channel was introduced in 1994 for transmission of mail from Delhi to six state capitals. The remaining state capitals were covered by August 1995. The Rajdhani channel aims at catering to mails emanating from Delhi and meant for the state capitals and vice versa. Yellowcoloured letter boxes have been installed for such letters.
Metro channel This channel was also introduced in 1994 to handle inter-metro first-class mail between Bangalore, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad and Mumbai. In these cities light blue-coloured letter boxes have been installed especially for such letters.
Green channel Special arrangements exist in all major cities for expeditious delivery of 10'cal mail through this system. Unregistered first-class mail emanating from a town and meant for delivery within that town are delivered the next day of posting. Green letter boxes are installed at selected post offices and at other public places for posting the local mail. The main objective of this channel is to segregate the local mail for its speedy processing and expeditious delivery.
Business channel Business channel comprises first-class unregistered letter mail posted by corporate bodies including government and semi-government institutions at the counter of a designated post office or a mail office. If the quantum to be mailed at a time exceeds 2,000, it is required to be pre-sorted by the customer based on the local parameters of the place of posting.
Bulk mail channel Postings exceeding 250 articles in case of registered mail or 2,000 pieces of unregistered mail are called bulk mail postings. Bulk mail has to be necessarily pre-sorted in registered bundles (for registered mail) and labelled bundles (for unregistered mail) as per the specified sorting pattern. There are designated post-offices called corporate post offices which are authorised to accept bulk mail.
Periodical channel This is a separate channel to ensure speedy transmission of newspapers and periodicals which are time-sensitive and are posted in bulk. This channel is operated in metro cities and major towns where heavy volume of such mail is received.
Local mail is segmented from non-local mail in order to ensure a dedicated mail transmission system catering to the special customer needs. For prioritisation in transmission non-local mail is further segmented as: household mail, official mail, corporate mail, patrika and periodical mail, packets and parcel. First-class household and official mails have been identified as priority mail.
The following mail channels have been introduced in cities and larger towns.
Rajdhani channel This channel was introduced in 1994 for transmission of mail from Delhi to six state capitals. The remaining state capitals were covered by August 1995. The Rajdhani channel aims at catering to mails emanating from Delhi and meant for the state capitals and vice versa. Yellowcoloured letter boxes have been installed for such letters.
Metro channel This channel was also introduced in 1994 to handle inter-metro first-class mail between Bangalore, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad and Mumbai. In these cities light blue-coloured letter boxes have been installed especially for such letters.
Green channel Special arrangements exist in all major cities for expeditious delivery of 10'cal mail through this system. Unregistered first-class mail emanating from a town and meant for delivery within that town are delivered the next day of posting. Green letter boxes are installed at selected post offices and at other public places for posting the local mail. The main objective of this channel is to segregate the local mail for its speedy processing and expeditious delivery.
Business channel Business channel comprises first-class unregistered letter mail posted by corporate bodies including government and semi-government institutions at the counter of a designated post office or a mail office. If the quantum to be mailed at a time exceeds 2,000, it is required to be pre-sorted by the customer based on the local parameters of the place of posting.
Bulk mail channel Postings exceeding 250 articles in case of registered mail or 2,000 pieces of unregistered mail are called bulk mail postings. Bulk mail has to be necessarily pre-sorted in registered bundles (for registered mail) and labelled bundles (for unregistered mail) as per the specified sorting pattern. There are designated post-offices called corporate post offices which are authorised to accept bulk mail.
Periodical channel This is a separate channel to ensure speedy transmission of newspapers and periodicals which are time-sensitive and are posted in bulk. This channel is operated in metro cities and major towns where heavy volume of such mail is received.
Postal System
Postal System in India It may be recalled that the postal system of India was used solely for official purposes till 1837 when the postal services were opened to the public. The first postage stamp was issued in Karachi in 1852, valid only in the Sind province. The Indian Post Office was reorganised as an institution in 1854 when 700 post offices were already in existence. The statute governing the postal services in the country is the Indian Post Office Act, 1898. It vests the government with the exclusive privilege of collecting, carrying and delivering letters within the country. However, now private courier services have been allowed.
In 2008, the India Post adopted a new logo. After 150 years of its existence the India Post has witnessed a sevenfold growth in the postal network. India has the largest postal network in the world. On an average, a post office serves an area of 21.09 sq.km and a population of 6,602. Post offices in rural areas are opened subject to satisfaction of norms regarding population, income and distance laid down by the department for the purpose. The element of subsidy involved in opening post offices in hilly, desert and inaccessible areas is to the extent of 85 per cent of the cost, whereas the subsidy in openinf a post office in normal rural
areas is to the ~xtent of 663 per cent of the cost.
The postal network consists of four categories of post offices, viz., head post offices, sub-post offices, extradepartmental sub-post offices and extra-departmental branch post offices. All categories of post offices offer similar postal services, with the delivery function being restricted to only earmarked offices. In terms of management control, accounts are consolidated progressively from branch post office to sub-post office and finally in head post office.
The postal network in India (constituting the largest in the world) continues to fulfil its universal service obligations of making basic services available to all. The postal services continue to run into deficit. This is mainly because the emphasis is on the social objective.
The long-term objective of the Department of Postal Services is to locate a post office within three kilometres of every village and to provide a facility of a letter box in every village with a population of over 500.
In 2008, the India Post adopted a new logo. After 150 years of its existence the India Post has witnessed a sevenfold growth in the postal network. India has the largest postal network in the world. On an average, a post office serves an area of 21.09 sq.km and a population of 6,602. Post offices in rural areas are opened subject to satisfaction of norms regarding population, income and distance laid down by the department for the purpose. The element of subsidy involved in opening post offices in hilly, desert and inaccessible areas is to the extent of 85 per cent of the cost, whereas the subsidy in openinf a post office in normal rural
areas is to the ~xtent of 663 per cent of the cost.
The postal network consists of four categories of post offices, viz., head post offices, sub-post offices, extradepartmental sub-post offices and extra-departmental branch post offices. All categories of post offices offer similar postal services, with the delivery function being restricted to only earmarked offices. In terms of management control, accounts are consolidated progressively from branch post office to sub-post office and finally in head post office.
The postal network in India (constituting the largest in the world) continues to fulfil its universal service obligations of making basic services available to all. The postal services continue to run into deficit. This is mainly because the emphasis is on the social objective.
The long-term objective of the Department of Postal Services is to locate a post office within three kilometres of every village and to provide a facility of a letter box in every village with a population of over 500.
POSTAL SYSTEM
POSTAL SYSTEM Postal system may be defined as an institution, usually under the control of a governmental or quasi-governmental agency, that makes it possible to send a letter, packet, or parcel to any addressee, in the same country or abroad, with the expectation that it will be received.
The earliest references to postal systems are from Egypt in 2000 BC and the Chou dynasty in China 1,000 years later. China is also believed to have developed the first post house relay system in the world. However, the origin of the development of modem postal system may be traced to the early eighteenth century when a programme to improve the condition of public roads in Great Britain greatly increased the speed at which mail travelled. In 1784, John Palmer introduced mail coaches. The mail was first carried by rail from Liverpool to Manchester in 1830. Another major milestone in postal progress in the nineteenth century was the idea, first proposed by the British ,educator and tax reformer, Rowland Hill, in 1837, of charging a single uniform rate for delivery based on weight rather than distance and using prepaid adhesive postage stamps. In 1853, Britain introduced the first post boxes. In 1855, it first installed post boxes in London. The Post Office Savings Bank was begun in 1861, and private telegraph services were taken over by the post office in Britain. The introduction of steamships and rail-roads in the nineteenth century also greatly facilitated the delivery of mail between nations.
The two most significant advancements of the twentieth century were the development of reliable airmail service and the introduction of automated mail handling. Mail wa's carried unofficially by Claude Grahame White, a British pilot, on a flight from Blackpool to Southport, in England. In 1911, a French pilot, Henri Pequet, carried mail from Allahabad to Naini in India; and a regular airmail service was set up. Mail flights in Britain and the USA also began in 1911. In the USA, a regular trans-continental service was introduced in 1924. Airmail services in Australia began in the 1920s. The first airmail flight between Australia and Britain took place in 1934.
In recent years, post-offices in industrial countries have followed a policy of providing more automation in the handling of mail to provide customers with a better service. There has been an increase in the number of private carriers of circulars, catalogues, magazines and merchandise samples, although private firms are not normally allowed to handle ordinary mail. Private parcel carriers also compete with the post office. The growth of elettronic postal services has been a major development.
The earliest references to postal systems are from Egypt in 2000 BC and the Chou dynasty in China 1,000 years later. China is also believed to have developed the first post house relay system in the world. However, the origin of the development of modem postal system may be traced to the early eighteenth century when a programme to improve the condition of public roads in Great Britain greatly increased the speed at which mail travelled. In 1784, John Palmer introduced mail coaches. The mail was first carried by rail from Liverpool to Manchester in 1830. Another major milestone in postal progress in the nineteenth century was the idea, first proposed by the British ,educator and tax reformer, Rowland Hill, in 1837, of charging a single uniform rate for delivery based on weight rather than distance and using prepaid adhesive postage stamps. In 1853, Britain introduced the first post boxes. In 1855, it first installed post boxes in London. The Post Office Savings Bank was begun in 1861, and private telegraph services were taken over by the post office in Britain. The introduction of steamships and rail-roads in the nineteenth century also greatly facilitated the delivery of mail between nations.
The two most significant advancements of the twentieth century were the development of reliable airmail service and the introduction of automated mail handling. Mail wa's carried unofficially by Claude Grahame White, a British pilot, on a flight from Blackpool to Southport, in England. In 1911, a French pilot, Henri Pequet, carried mail from Allahabad to Naini in India; and a regular airmail service was set up. Mail flights in Britain and the USA also began in 1911. In the USA, a regular trans-continental service was introduced in 1924. Airmail services in Australia began in the 1920s. The first airmail flight between Australia and Britain took place in 1934.
In recent years, post-offices in industrial countries have followed a policy of providing more automation in the handling of mail to provide customers with a better service. There has been an increase in the number of private carriers of circulars, catalogues, magazines and merchandise samples, although private firms are not normally allowed to handle ordinary mail. Private parcel carriers also compete with the post office. The growth of elettronic postal services has been a major development.
COMMUNICATIONS
COMMUNICATIONS
The expansion and development of the modern world in social, economic and political fields would not have been possible without the development of communication technology. The rapid development of communication technology has been aptly termed as a 'revolution'. The communication technology comprises various modes such as the postal network, telecommunications and information technology.
The communications system includes posts and telegraph, telecommunication system, broadcasting, television and information services. The communication system serves to link various segments of the market, and supplies the information and data needed by participants in the soci~economic development process.
The expansion and development of the modern world in social, economic and political fields would not have been possible without the development of communication technology. The rapid development of communication technology has been aptly termed as a 'revolution'. The communication technology comprises various modes such as the postal network, telecommunications and information technology.
The communications system includes posts and telegraph, telecommunication system, broadcasting, television and information services. The communication system serves to link various segments of the market, and supplies the information and data needed by participants in the soci~economic development process.
E. PIPELINE TRANSPORT
E. PIPELINE TRANSPORT Pipelines provide the most convenient mode of transport for petroleum, petroleum products and gas in bulk quantities over a long distance. Nowadays, solid minerals too are transported by pipelines after converting them into slurry.
Major Pipeline Network in the World Although pipeline transportation is being employed by several countries, the North American, Western Europe and Middle East countries are the regions with the largest network of pipelines. In America, pipeline network consists of four major systems: (i) the gas pipeline system carrying on natural gas; (ii) the system carrying petroleum and refined products; (iii) the system carrying solids, such as coal; and (iv) the system carrying water.
In the USA, there is a dense network of pipelines for carrying petroleum. A famous pipeline of the USA is known as "Big Inch", who carries mineral oil from the wells of the Gulf of Mexico to the north-eastern part.
In Europe, Russia, Germany, UK, France, Italy and Denmark have large pipeline network. One of the longest pipelines in Europe runs from Marseilles (France) to Karlsrube (Germany), covering a distance of over 800 km. The Russian system of pipelines, is .one of the largest networks of pipelines in the world. This system includes crude pipelines, product pipelines and gas pipelines. One of the longest pipelines, called COMECON, in the world connects oil wells of the Ural and the Volga regions to the countries of East Europe.
The Middle East pipeline network functions basically as a link between the production regions in the desert and the refineries on the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea. Oman, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq have fairly well developed system of pipelines.
Pipeline Networks in India In India, solid minerals are transported through pipelines in two areas: iron ore in the form of slurry is carried from Kudremukh to Mangalore port, and rock phosphate concentrates are taken from Maton mines to Debari smelter plant in Udaipur district of Rajasthan. Mineral oil is carried from Kandla port to Koyali and Mathura refineries through a pipeline.
The HaziraBijaipur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) pipeline has linked Hazira on the west coast and Jagdishpur in Sultanpur district (Uttar Pradesh). The 1,730 km long pipeline carries gas to a number of steel plants, viz., Sawai Madhopur in Rajasthan, Auraiya (Etawah), Aonla (Bareilly) and Shahjahanpur (Uttar Pradesh). A new pipeline was laid from Salaya in Gujarat to Mathura via Viramgam which covers a distance of 1,220 km. Pipe connection also exists from Barauni to Kanpur and Delhi. Another such line links Mathura and Jalandhar via Delhi and Ambala. Important pipelines also link Naharkatiya oil fields to Guwahati and Siliguri.
Major Pipeline Network in the World Although pipeline transportation is being employed by several countries, the North American, Western Europe and Middle East countries are the regions with the largest network of pipelines. In America, pipeline network consists of four major systems: (i) the gas pipeline system carrying on natural gas; (ii) the system carrying petroleum and refined products; (iii) the system carrying solids, such as coal; and (iv) the system carrying water.
In the USA, there is a dense network of pipelines for carrying petroleum. A famous pipeline of the USA is known as "Big Inch", who carries mineral oil from the wells of the Gulf of Mexico to the north-eastern part.
In Europe, Russia, Germany, UK, France, Italy and Denmark have large pipeline network. One of the longest pipelines in Europe runs from Marseilles (France) to Karlsrube (Germany), covering a distance of over 800 km. The Russian system of pipelines, is .one of the largest networks of pipelines in the world. This system includes crude pipelines, product pipelines and gas pipelines. One of the longest pipelines, called COMECON, in the world connects oil wells of the Ural and the Volga regions to the countries of East Europe.
The Middle East pipeline network functions basically as a link between the production regions in the desert and the refineries on the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea. Oman, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Iran and Iraq have fairly well developed system of pipelines.
Pipeline Networks in India In India, solid minerals are transported through pipelines in two areas: iron ore in the form of slurry is carried from Kudremukh to Mangalore port, and rock phosphate concentrates are taken from Maton mines to Debari smelter plant in Udaipur district of Rajasthan. Mineral oil is carried from Kandla port to Koyali and Mathura refineries through a pipeline.
The HaziraBijaipur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) pipeline has linked Hazira on the west coast and Jagdishpur in Sultanpur district (Uttar Pradesh). The 1,730 km long pipeline carries gas to a number of steel plants, viz., Sawai Madhopur in Rajasthan, Auraiya (Etawah), Aonla (Bareilly) and Shahjahanpur (Uttar Pradesh). A new pipeline was laid from Salaya in Gujarat to Mathura via Viramgam which covers a distance of 1,220 km. Pipe connection also exists from Barauni to Kanpur and Delhi. Another such line links Mathura and Jalandhar via Delhi and Ambala. Important pipelines also link Naharkatiya oil fields to Guwahati and Siliguri.
Indian Airways
Indian Airways The scheduled civil air transport in India commenced during 1929-30 when the British, French and the Dutch extended their services to and beyond India. The first internal air service was established between Karachi and Chennai via Mumbai in 1922. By the beginning of the Second World War, major cities like Karachi, Lahore, Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai had scheduled air services operated by private companies. At the time of independence, there were four companies. By 1951, four more private companies were operating air services. The Air Transport Enquiry Committee set up in 1950 recommended the merger of these eight companies into a corporation. Under the Air Corporation Act, 1953, the Indian Airlines Corporation was set up to operate all internal civil air services and Air India International was constituted for managing international air transport.
The Government ended the monopoly of Indian Airlines and Air India on the scheduled operations by repealing the Air Corporation Act, 1953. There are at present ten scheduled airlines operating on the domestic network rendering the passengers a wide choice of flights. Apart from this, more than 40 companies are holding nonscheduled operators permit. The policy on domestic air transport service was approved in April 1997 according to which barriers to entry and exit from this sector have been removed. Recently, two private scheduled airlines, Le., M/s Sahara Airlines and Jet Airways were permitted to operate on international sector.
The main trunk routes having high density of traffic are operated by Air Bus and Boeing aircraft. The remote areas are served by smaller aircraft. A third airlineVayudoot-was incorporated as a private limited company in January 1981. The Pawan Hans Limited was set up in October 1985 to provide transport services for short distances.
The activities of civil aviation fall under three broad areas-operational, infrastructural and regulator-cum-development. Domestic air services in the country are provided by the Indian Airlines now renamed Indian and its subsidiary Alliance Air, and private airlines (scheduled and non-scheduled), while the international services are pro~ vided by Air India, and. other international airlines operating in India. Pawan Hans Helicopters Ltd. basically provides helicopter support services to the petrQleum sector and connects the remote and inaccessible areas of the (North-East).
It also provides air support services to several customers which include Government of Punjab, Government of Arunachal Pradesh, the Lakshadweep
Administration, Gas Authority of India Ltd. and, in addition, also caters to the helicopter requirements of the private sector.
The Directorate General of Civil Aviation operates the civil airports in India.
The Civil Aviation Training Centre is at Allahabad. It comprises an aerodrome school and air traffic facilities. The Fire Service Training Centre is located in Kolkata. The Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Academy (IGRUA) is located at Fursatgunj (Uttar Pradesh). It provides training facilities to commercial pilots.
Infrastructural facilities are provided by the Airports Authority of India (AAI), which was formed on April 1, 1995 by merging the International Airports Authority of India and National Airports Authority. The AAI is responsible for providing safe, efficient air traffic services and aeronautical communication services for effective control of air traffic in the Indian air space. It controls and manages the entire Indian air space extending even beyond the territorial limits of the country, as accepted by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).
The Government ended the monopoly of Indian Airlines and Air India on the scheduled operations by repealing the Air Corporation Act, 1953. There are at present ten scheduled airlines operating on the domestic network rendering the passengers a wide choice of flights. Apart from this, more than 40 companies are holding nonscheduled operators permit. The policy on domestic air transport service was approved in April 1997 according to which barriers to entry and exit from this sector have been removed. Recently, two private scheduled airlines, Le., M/s Sahara Airlines and Jet Airways were permitted to operate on international sector.
The main trunk routes having high density of traffic are operated by Air Bus and Boeing aircraft. The remote areas are served by smaller aircraft. A third airlineVayudoot-was incorporated as a private limited company in January 1981. The Pawan Hans Limited was set up in October 1985 to provide transport services for short distances.
The activities of civil aviation fall under three broad areas-operational, infrastructural and regulator-cum-development. Domestic air services in the country are provided by the Indian Airlines now renamed Indian and its subsidiary Alliance Air, and private airlines (scheduled and non-scheduled), while the international services are pro~ vided by Air India, and. other international airlines operating in India. Pawan Hans Helicopters Ltd. basically provides helicopter support services to the petrQleum sector and connects the remote and inaccessible areas of the (North-East).
It also provides air support services to several customers which include Government of Punjab, Government of Arunachal Pradesh, the Lakshadweep
Administration, Gas Authority of India Ltd. and, in addition, also caters to the helicopter requirements of the private sector.
The Directorate General of Civil Aviation operates the civil airports in India.
The Civil Aviation Training Centre is at Allahabad. It comprises an aerodrome school and air traffic facilities. The Fire Service Training Centre is located in Kolkata. The Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Academy (IGRUA) is located at Fursatgunj (Uttar Pradesh). It provides training facilities to commercial pilots.
Infrastructural facilities are provided by the Airports Authority of India (AAI), which was formed on April 1, 1995 by merging the International Airports Authority of India and National Airports Authority. The AAI is responsible for providing safe, efficient air traffic services and aeronautical communication services for effective control of air traffic in the Indian air space. It controls and manages the entire Indian air space extending even beyond the territorial limits of the country, as accepted by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).
D. AIR TRANSPORT
D. AIR TRANSPORT Commercial airlines became a mode of travel only after the First World War. The first regular air service was begun between London and Paris in 1919. Today; the greatest amount of air traffic is found in the USA with large number of international and internal flights. There are four large air corporations in the USA the United Air Lines, Trans-World Airlines, Pan-American Airlines and Eastern Air Lines.
The busiest airports are those of New York, Chicago, Washington DC, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Atlanta, Boston and Miami. The largest airline company of Canada is the Trans-Canada Airline. Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver are the busiest air terminals. Next to the United States, the greatest volume of air traffic is found in Europe, especially at London, Paris, Rome, Madrid, Shannon (southern Ireland), Berlin, Warsaw, Vienna, Geneva and Moscow. London's Heathrow airport is the busiest in the world. Most of the European countries have their own national airlines, the most important of which include British Airways, Lufthansa (Germany), Alitalia, Air France, KLM (the Dutch airline) and SAS (jointly operated by the Scandinavian countries-Norway, Sweden and Denmark). Japan Airlines, Air India, Quantas (Australia), South African Airways also have important internal and international air routes. The Russian airlines is the Aeroflot.
The busiest airports are those of New York, Chicago, Washington DC, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Atlanta, Boston and Miami. The largest airline company of Canada is the Trans-Canada Airline. Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver are the busiest air terminals. Next to the United States, the greatest volume of air traffic is found in Europe, especially at London, Paris, Rome, Madrid, Shannon (southern Ireland), Berlin, Warsaw, Vienna, Geneva and Moscow. London's Heathrow airport is the busiest in the world. Most of the European countries have their own national airlines, the most important of which include British Airways, Lufthansa (Germany), Alitalia, Air France, KLM (the Dutch airline) and SAS (jointly operated by the Scandinavian countries-Norway, Sweden and Denmark). Japan Airlines, Air India, Quantas (Australia), South African Airways also have important internal and international air routes. The Russian airlines is the Aeroflot.
Coastal Shipping
Coastal Shipping: Coastal shipping is an energy efficient, environmental-friendly and economical mode of transport in the Indian transport network and a crucial component for the development of domestic industry and trade. India, with her 7,516.6 km long coastline studded with 12 major ports and 186 non-major ports providing
congenial and favourable conditions for the development. of this alternate mode of transport.
The National Shipping Board is a statutory body set up under the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958.
The Shipping Corporation of India (SCI) Ltd. was formed on October 2, 1961. The present authorised capital of the company is Rs 450 crore and paid up capital is Rs 282.30 crore. The status of SCI has been changed from a private limited company to public limited from September 18, 1992. The SCI was conferred 'Mini Ratna' status by the Government of India in February 2000. At present, the government is holding 80.12 per cent of the share capital. and the balance is held by financial institutions, public and others (NRIs, corporate bodies, etc.).
India has nine shipyards in the central public sector, and 19 small shipyards in the private sector to cater to the needs of the shipping sector. There are 17 dry docks in the country. The Cochin Shipyard at Cochin; Hindustan Shipyard at Visakhapatnam; Garden Reach Ship Builders and Engineers at Kolkata; and Mazagaon Docks at Mumbai are major shipbuilding areas located in public sector. The Hooghly Dock and Port Engineers Limited are located at Kolkata.
congenial and favourable conditions for the development. of this alternate mode of transport.
The National Shipping Board is a statutory body set up under the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958.
The Shipping Corporation of India (SCI) Ltd. was formed on October 2, 1961. The present authorised capital of the company is Rs 450 crore and paid up capital is Rs 282.30 crore. The status of SCI has been changed from a private limited company to public limited from September 18, 1992. The SCI was conferred 'Mini Ratna' status by the Government of India in February 2000. At present, the government is holding 80.12 per cent of the share capital. and the balance is held by financial institutions, public and others (NRIs, corporate bodies, etc.).
India has nine shipyards in the central public sector, and 19 small shipyards in the private sector to cater to the needs of the shipping sector. There are 17 dry docks in the country. The Cochin Shipyard at Cochin; Hindustan Shipyard at Visakhapatnam; Garden Reach Ship Builders and Engineers at Kolkata; and Mazagaon Docks at Mumbai are major shipbuilding areas located in public sector. The Hooghly Dock and Port Engineers Limited are located at Kolkata.
Shipping in India
Shipping in India The importance of shipping in the transport sector of Indian economy can be gauged from the fac~ that from approximately 95 per cent of the country's"tJade volume, about 68 per cent in terms of value is moved by sea. India has the largest merchant shipping fleet among developing countries and ranks 19th in the world in shipping tonnage.
The salient features of India's shipping policy are the promotion of national shipping to increase self-reliance in the carriage of the country's overseas trade and protection of stakeholders' interest in EXIM trade. India's national flagships provide an essential means of transport for crude oil and petroleum product imports. National shipping makes significant contribution to the foreign exchange earnings of the country.
The salient features of India's shipping policy are the promotion of national shipping to increase self-reliance in the carriage of the country's overseas trade and protection of stakeholders' interest in EXIM trade. India's national flagships provide an essential means of transport for crude oil and petroleum product imports. National shipping makes significant contribution to the foreign exchange earnings of the country.
Minor and Intermediate Ports
Minor and Intermediate Ports There are about 200 such ports which include Redi port (Maharashtra), Kakinada (Andhra Pradesh) and Kozhikode (Kerala). Other ports proposed to be developed as minor ports are Andaman and Nicobar, Lakshadweep and PondicJ;1erry. These ports can relieve the overloaded major ports and can be used as bases for deep-sea fishing. These ports mainly serve coastal trade and support passenger traffic where there is no proper rail or road link. While major ports are under the purview of the Central government, minor/intermediate ports come under the jurisdiction of the respective state governments.
Ports in India
Ports in India There are 12 major ports and about 200 non-major ports in India. A survey of 12 major ports in India and the goods traffic handled by them is given below.
On the West Coast Kandla (Gujarat); Mumbai (Maharashtra); Marmagao (Goa); New Mangalore (Karnataka); Co chin (Kerala); Jawaharlal Nehru Port near Mumbai (earlier called Nhava Sheva).
On the East Coast Tuticorin and Chennai (Tamil Nadu); Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh); Para deep (Orissa); and Kolkata-Haldia (West Bengal). Ennore in Tamil Nadu was notified as a major port in May 1999 and declared open In February 2001.
In 2008; the Krishnapatam Port in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh was dedicated to the nation. The port will playa key role in further envisaging trade betwecn India and the Gulf region, with its dedicated iron are handling units, coal jetties and general cargo handling facilities. The first phase of the port opened in July 2008 and is scheduled to be completed in 2011. It would be one of the most modernised port in the country.
Among major ports, Mlt1llbai handles the maximum traffic. It is a natural harbour. It handles over one-fifth of the total traffic of ports, mostly petroleum products and dry cargo. Kandla is a tidal port and a free trade zone has been set up here. Important traffic handled are crude oil, petroleum products, edible oil, foodgrains, salt, cotton, etc. Mannagao occupies the fifth position in terms of total quantum of traffic handled. From New Mansalorl', iron ore of Kundremukh is being exported. Other items are petroleum products, fertilisers, molasses, etc. Cochin is a natural harbour dealing in fertilisers, petroleum and general cargn. Tuticorin handles mainly coal, saIt, edible oil, dry cdrgo and petroleum products. Chennai is the second largest port in the volume of traffic handled. Important items are petroleum products, crude oil, fertilisers, iron ore and dry cargo. Visaklzapatnam is the deepest port. An outer h,ubour has been developed for exporting iron ore and a berth for crude oil is located here. Kolkata is a riverine port handling diversified commodities. Paradeep handles iron orc and some quantities of coal and dry cargo. lawalwrlnl Nelzm Port is equipped with modern facilities having mechanised container berths for handling dry bulk cargo and service berths.
The major ports handle about 90 per cent of the allIndia port throughput and thus bear the brunt of sea-borne trade.
On the West Coast Kandla (Gujarat); Mumbai (Maharashtra); Marmagao (Goa); New Mangalore (Karnataka); Co chin (Kerala); Jawaharlal Nehru Port near Mumbai (earlier called Nhava Sheva).
On the East Coast Tuticorin and Chennai (Tamil Nadu); Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh); Para deep (Orissa); and Kolkata-Haldia (West Bengal). Ennore in Tamil Nadu was notified as a major port in May 1999 and declared open In February 2001.
In 2008; the Krishnapatam Port in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh was dedicated to the nation. The port will playa key role in further envisaging trade betwecn India and the Gulf region, with its dedicated iron are handling units, coal jetties and general cargo handling facilities. The first phase of the port opened in July 2008 and is scheduled to be completed in 2011. It would be one of the most modernised port in the country.
Among major ports, Mlt1llbai handles the maximum traffic. It is a natural harbour. It handles over one-fifth of the total traffic of ports, mostly petroleum products and dry cargo. Kandla is a tidal port and a free trade zone has been set up here. Important traffic handled are crude oil, petroleum products, edible oil, foodgrains, salt, cotton, etc. Mannagao occupies the fifth position in terms of total quantum of traffic handled. From New Mansalorl', iron ore of Kundremukh is being exported. Other items are petroleum products, fertilisers, molasses, etc. Cochin is a natural harbour dealing in fertilisers, petroleum and general cargn. Tuticorin handles mainly coal, saIt, edible oil, dry cdrgo and petroleum products. Chennai is the second largest port in the volume of traffic handled. Important items are petroleum products, crude oil, fertilisers, iron ore and dry cargo. Visaklzapatnam is the deepest port. An outer h,ubour has been developed for exporting iron ore and a berth for crude oil is located here. Kolkata is a riverine port handling diversified commodities. Paradeep handles iron orc and some quantities of coal and dry cargo. lawalwrlnl Nelzm Port is equipped with modern facilities having mechanised container berths for handling dry bulk cargo and service berths.
The major ports handle about 90 per cent of the allIndia port throughput and thus bear the brunt of sea-borne trade.
Ocean Transport
Ocean Transport The sea represents one of the oldes and cheapest modes for transporting bulky goods. The us' of containers has made it easy to transfer goods to lane transport by rail or road at the world's major ports. Th. oceans are open highways with few natural barriers, bu the bulk of the world's trade passes along certain well marked routes.
Major Ocean Trade Routes The major ocean tradt routes in the world are as follows:
(a) The North Atlantic Route The North Atlantic routE links the world's major ports such as London, Rotterdam, Hamburg, New York, Yokohama, Singapore, Colomboj San Francisco and Honolulu. On both sides of the Nort~ Atlantic there are regions of dense population and intensel
industrial activity. The ports on the North Sea, the BaJtic Sea and the English Channel are the outlets of thea,?,f\ cultural and industrial regions of Europe. Manuufactured items are exported from these ports to the United stateS and Canada. In north-eastern North America there are large ocean terminals- New York, Boston, Philadelphiafavourably located for trade around the world and with Western Europe in particular. The external trade of the North Atlantic region is greater than all the trade of the rest of the world.
(b) The Cape of Good Hope Route The Cape of Good Hope .route was once the subsidiary alternative to the Suez Canal route, but because of its long and circuitous nature, it was avoided by most ships. But when the Suez Canal was closed in 1967 oil tankers and liners had to take this route. Even after the Suez Canal re-opened in 1975 much trade has continued to take this route, partly because tankers and other vessels are nowadays much larger.
(c) The Mediterranean-Suez-Asiatic Route With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Mediterranean-SuezAsiatic route linking Europe with the Far East gained importance. The route was once considered the 'life-line' of Britain because oil supplies from West Asia and tropical raw materials and food-stuffs from the Asiatic colonies came through the Suez. When the Panama Canal opened in 1913, SOme traffic, especially that for New Zealand and the Far East, was diverted, but traffic on the Suez Canal route continued to increase. Oil is sent across the Arabian desert by pipelines from the Persian Gulf oil-fields to the Mediterranean terminals at Banias, Tripoli and Saida (Sidon), for shipment to Europe, instead of going by tanker round the Cape of Good Hope. This is an economical as well as the fastest way of transporting oil to Europe.
(d) The Panama Canal-West Indian-Central American Route The completion of the Panama Canal eliminated the long and dangerous voyage round the stormy Cape Horn. "The Panama Canal is the gateway to the Pacific." It has benefited countries on both Atlantic and Pacific coasts, facilitating the trade in minerals, oil, foodstuffs, raw materials and manufactured products. But it is the traffic between the east and west coasts of the United States that has benefited the most. The Panama route has also benefited trade in the West Indian islands and the Pacific states of North, Central and South America.
(e) The South Atlantic Route The ocean traffic in the South Atlantic is less than that in the North Atlantic, because it connects regions of low population densities and limited economic development. Only south-eastern Brazil and parts of South Africa have large-scale industrial development.
(f) The Trans-Pacific Route Trade across the North Pacific Ocean traverses several routes which converge at Honolulu, 'the cross-roads of the Pacific', for refuelling and servicing. The distance is, however, halved if one takes the direct route farther north in a great circle, which links Vancouver and Yokohama without touching the Hawaiian islands.
Major Ocean Trade Routes The major ocean tradt routes in the world are as follows:
(a) The North Atlantic Route The North Atlantic routE links the world's major ports such as London, Rotterdam, Hamburg, New York, Yokohama, Singapore, Colomboj San Francisco and Honolulu. On both sides of the Nort~ Atlantic there are regions of dense population and intensel
industrial activity. The ports on the North Sea, the BaJtic Sea and the English Channel are the outlets of thea,?,f\ cultural and industrial regions of Europe. Manuufactured items are exported from these ports to the United stateS and Canada. In north-eastern North America there are large ocean terminals- New York, Boston, Philadelphiafavourably located for trade around the world and with Western Europe in particular. The external trade of the North Atlantic region is greater than all the trade of the rest of the world.
(b) The Cape of Good Hope Route The Cape of Good Hope .route was once the subsidiary alternative to the Suez Canal route, but because of its long and circuitous nature, it was avoided by most ships. But when the Suez Canal was closed in 1967 oil tankers and liners had to take this route. Even after the Suez Canal re-opened in 1975 much trade has continued to take this route, partly because tankers and other vessels are nowadays much larger.
(c) The Mediterranean-Suez-Asiatic Route With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Mediterranean-SuezAsiatic route linking Europe with the Far East gained importance. The route was once considered the 'life-line' of Britain because oil supplies from West Asia and tropical raw materials and food-stuffs from the Asiatic colonies came through the Suez. When the Panama Canal opened in 1913, SOme traffic, especially that for New Zealand and the Far East, was diverted, but traffic on the Suez Canal route continued to increase. Oil is sent across the Arabian desert by pipelines from the Persian Gulf oil-fields to the Mediterranean terminals at Banias, Tripoli and Saida (Sidon), for shipment to Europe, instead of going by tanker round the Cape of Good Hope. This is an economical as well as the fastest way of transporting oil to Europe.
(d) The Panama Canal-West Indian-Central American Route The completion of the Panama Canal eliminated the long and dangerous voyage round the stormy Cape Horn. "The Panama Canal is the gateway to the Pacific." It has benefited countries on both Atlantic and Pacific coasts, facilitating the trade in minerals, oil, foodstuffs, raw materials and manufactured products. But it is the traffic between the east and west coasts of the United States that has benefited the most. The Panama route has also benefited trade in the West Indian islands and the Pacific states of North, Central and South America.
(e) The South Atlantic Route The ocean traffic in the South Atlantic is less than that in the North Atlantic, because it connects regions of low population densities and limited economic development. Only south-eastern Brazil and parts of South Africa have large-scale industrial development.
(f) The Trans-Pacific Route Trade across the North Pacific Ocean traverses several routes which converge at Honolulu, 'the cross-roads of the Pacific', for refuelling and servicing. The distance is, however, halved if one takes the direct route farther north in a great circle, which links Vancouver and Yokohama without touching the Hawaiian islands.
National Waterways
National Waterways The Ganga between AllahabadHaldia (1620 km), the Sadiya-Dhubri stretch of River Brahmaputra (891 km) and the Kollam-Kottapuram stretch of West Coast Canal along with Champakara and Udyogmandal Canals (205 km) in Kerala have so far been declared as National Waterways and are being developed for navigation by Inland Waterways Authority of India.
Following are the important navigable waterways in India:
1. Ganga-Bhagirathi (upper course of Hooghly)Hooghly : This section has a gradual gradient, gentle flow and is densely populated.
2. Brahmaputra and its tributaries
3. Deltaic courses of Mahanadi, Krishna and Godavari
4. Barak river (in the North-East)
5. Rivers of Goa-Mandovi and Zuari
6. Backwaters (kayals) of Kerala
7. Canals such as
(i) Buckingham canal-from Kommanur canal of Krishna Delta to Marakkanam (100 km south of Chennai),
(ii) Cumberjua canal-links Mandavi and Zuari in Goa and
(iii) Vedarraniyam canal-lin~ Nagapattinam port with Vedarraniyam.
8. Lower reaches of Narmada and Tapti
9. Creeks of west flowing rivers on the west coas south of Mumbai, such as Kali, Sharavati and Netravat
Current Status Presently, the inland water transport i India is restricted to a few stretches in the Ganga-Bhagirathl Hooghly rivers, the Brahmaputra, the Barak river, th rivers in Goa, the backwaters in Kerala, inland waters iJ Mumbai and the deltaic'regions of the Godavari-Krishn rivers. Besides the organised operations by mechanisec vessels, country boats of various capacities also operate il various rivers and canals.
Following are the important navigable waterways in India:
1. Ganga-Bhagirathi (upper course of Hooghly)Hooghly : This section has a gradual gradient, gentle flow and is densely populated.
2. Brahmaputra and its tributaries
3. Deltaic courses of Mahanadi, Krishna and Godavari
4. Barak river (in the North-East)
5. Rivers of Goa-Mandovi and Zuari
6. Backwaters (kayals) of Kerala
7. Canals such as
(i) Buckingham canal-from Kommanur canal of Krishna Delta to Marakkanam (100 km south of Chennai),
(ii) Cumberjua canal-links Mandavi and Zuari in Goa and
(iii) Vedarraniyam canal-lin~ Nagapattinam port with Vedarraniyam.
8. Lower reaches of Narmada and Tapti
9. Creeks of west flowing rivers on the west coas south of Mumbai, such as Kali, Sharavati and Netravat
Current Status Presently, the inland water transport i India is restricted to a few stretches in the Ganga-Bhagirathl Hooghly rivers, the Brahmaputra, the Barak river, th rivers in Goa, the backwaters in Kerala, inland waters iJ Mumbai and the deltaic'regions of the Godavari-Krishn rivers. Besides the organised operations by mechanisec vessels, country boats of various capacities also operate il various rivers and canals.
Inland Water Transport in India
Inland Water Transport in India In India, 14,500 km of river channels are navigable, of which 3,700 km are usable by mechanised boats. But actually, only 2000 km are used. Of the total canal length of 4,300 km in India, 900 km IS navigable, but only 330 km is used.
The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) came into eXistence on October 27, 1986 for development and regulation of inland waterways in the country. The Authority undertakes various schemes for development of IWTrelated infrastructure on National Waterways. The head office of the Authority is located at Noida. The Authority also has its regional offices at Patna, Kolkata, Guwahati and Kochi and sub-offices at Allahabad, Varanasi, Bhagalpur, Farakka and Kollam.
The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) came into eXistence on October 27, 1986 for development and regulation of inland waterways in the country. The Authority undertakes various schemes for development of IWTrelated infrastructure on National Waterways. The head office of the Authority is located at Noida. The Authority also has its regional offices at Patna, Kolkata, Guwahati and Kochi and sub-offices at Allahabad, Varanasi, Bhagalpur, Farakka and Kollam.
Major Inland Waterways in the World
Major Inland Waterways in the World Inland wi'lterways are best developed in two continents, Europe and North America.
Europe A number of countries in Europe, such as France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Russia, have very extensive inland waterways, including both rivers and canals. Though France has a great length of waterways, the traffic in the country is not as great as in Germany or the Netherlands as many of the older French canals are not capable of taking small barges with a low carrying capacity.
The Rhine waterway is the most important waterway in Europe. The River Rhine flows through SwitzerlaRG, Germany and the Netherlands and forms the eastern border of France. Waterways of the Germanic-Baltic lowlands, comprising the Mittelland canal. Kiel Canal and Dortmund-Ems Canal, are important European waterways.
North America In North America, the most important waterway is the Great Lakes-St. ILawrence Waterway, shared by Canada and US. It stretches for over 3,760 km from Duluth on Lake Superior to the estuary of the St. Lawrence below Quebec. This waterway is linked to other important cities by smaller canals. The amount of traffic it handles is greater than any other commercial waterway. This is so despite the fact that the waterway is iCE'-bound for three-to-four months in a year. In the USA, the most important inland waterway is formed by the River Mississipi and its many tributaries.
Europe A number of countries in Europe, such as France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands and Russia, have very extensive inland waterways, including both rivers and canals. Though France has a great length of waterways, the traffic in the country is not as great as in Germany or the Netherlands as many of the older French canals are not capable of taking small barges with a low carrying capacity.
The Rhine waterway is the most important waterway in Europe. The River Rhine flows through SwitzerlaRG, Germany and the Netherlands and forms the eastern border of France. Waterways of the Germanic-Baltic lowlands, comprising the Mittelland canal. Kiel Canal and Dortmund-Ems Canal, are important European waterways.
North America In North America, the most important waterway is the Great Lakes-St. ILawrence Waterway, shared by Canada and US. It stretches for over 3,760 km from Duluth on Lake Superior to the estuary of the St. Lawrence below Quebec. This waterway is linked to other important cities by smaller canals. The amount of traffic it handles is greater than any other commercial waterway. This is so despite the fact that the waterway is iCE'-bound for three-to-four months in a year. In the USA, the most important inland waterway is formed by the River Mississipi and its many tributaries.
C. WATER TRANSPORT OR WATERWAYS
C. WATER TRANSPORT OR WATERWAYS Waterways have been used for carrying both men and goods since the earliest times. There are two greatest advantages of water transport. First, it uses existing routes, e.g., rivers, seas and needs no special tracks, except in the case of canals. Second, it is the cheapest form of transport for large, bulky loads. However. the slow speed is the most serious disadvantage of the water transport.
Inland Waterways Inland waterways are very varied, both in their natural form and type of craft they can carry. There are basically three types of inland waterways: rivers, whIch have been modified or canalised, and specially constructed canals.
(a) Rivers Rivers playa vital role in the transport of local products in many parts of the tropics as in the Zaire basin and South-East Asia, where other means of communication are poor or non-existent. However, many rivers in their natural state do not make good modem routes due to the following reasons:
(i) Many rivers, e.g., Ob, Yenisey, Lena, Mackenzie, etc., flow across empty and inhospitable lands into the frozen Arctic Ocean.
(ii) Many large rivers flow through sparsely-peopled
or climatically-hostile areas, e.g., Amazon.
(iii) Due to formation of meander by many rivers,
distance covered by river becomes much longer
than a similar journey by land.
(iv) Few rivers 'are navigable throughout their length.
(v) Many rivers are two short, too shallow or too swift
to be useful for navigation, e.g., rivers of Japan.
Korea, Indonesia and the Philippines.
(vi) Many rivers, such as Volga in Russia, freeze in
winter.
(vi) The largest rivers are usually subject to silting.
(b) Canalised Rivers Most of the major navigable rivers of the world, e.g., the St. Lawrence, the Rhine, the Elbe, the Rhone, have been dredged, dammed, or canalised to fit them for efficient modem transport.
(c) Canals Canals are specially constructed channels for either ocean-going or inland vessels. The great advantages of canal building are that canals can be constructed where no natural navigable water exists. Also, canals are not subject to natural hazards. Canals are an important means of transport in some region, notably northern Europe, where, together with modified rivers, they form very extensive network linking all the major industrial areas.
Inland Waterways Inland waterways are very varied, both in their natural form and type of craft they can carry. There are basically three types of inland waterways: rivers, whIch have been modified or canalised, and specially constructed canals.
(a) Rivers Rivers playa vital role in the transport of local products in many parts of the tropics as in the Zaire basin and South-East Asia, where other means of communication are poor or non-existent. However, many rivers in their natural state do not make good modem routes due to the following reasons:
(i) Many rivers, e.g., Ob, Yenisey, Lena, Mackenzie, etc., flow across empty and inhospitable lands into the frozen Arctic Ocean.
(ii) Many large rivers flow through sparsely-peopled
or climatically-hostile areas, e.g., Amazon.
(iii) Due to formation of meander by many rivers,
distance covered by river becomes much longer
than a similar journey by land.
(iv) Few rivers 'are navigable throughout their length.
(v) Many rivers are two short, too shallow or too swift
to be useful for navigation, e.g., rivers of Japan.
Korea, Indonesia and the Philippines.
(vi) Many rivers, such as Volga in Russia, freeze in
winter.
(vi) The largest rivers are usually subject to silting.
(b) Canalised Rivers Most of the major navigable rivers of the world, e.g., the St. Lawrence, the Rhine, the Elbe, the Rhone, have been dredged, dammed, or canalised to fit them for efficient modem transport.
(c) Canals Canals are specially constructed channels for either ocean-going or inland vessels. The great advantages of canal building are that canals can be constructed where no natural navigable water exists. Also, canals are not subject to natural hazards. Canals are an important means of transport in some region, notably northern Europe, where, together with modified rivers, they form very extensive network linking all the major industrial areas.
Thursday, November 5, 2009
Organisation, Research and Development
Organisation, Research and Development The Ministry of Railways undertakes the management of the Indian Railways, which is the largest public sector undertaking in the country. There are nine undertakings under the administrative control of the Ministry of Railways, viz., (i) Rail India Technical and Economic Services Limited (RITES); (ii) Indian Railway Construction (IRCON) International Limited; (Iii) Indian Railway Finance Corporation Limited (IRFC); (iv) Container Corporation of India Limited (CONCOR); (v) Konkan Railway Corporation Limited (KRCL); (vi) Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Ltd. (IRCTC); (vii) Railtel Corporation of India Ltd.(Rail Tel), (viii) Mumbai Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd. (MRVNL); and (ix) Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd. (RVNL). Centre for Railway Information System (CRIS) was set up as a registered society to design and implement various railway computerisation projects.
The Research, Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO) at Lucknow is the R&D wing of Indian Railways. It functions as a consultant to the Indian Railways in technical matters and also provides consultancy to other organisations connected with railway manufacture and design. Since 1924-25, railway finances remain separated from general revenues. They have their own funds and accounts and the Railway Budget is presented separately to Parliament. However, the Railways contribute to the general revenue a dividend on the capital invested. Quantum of contribution is reviewed periodically by a Parliamentary Convention Committee.
Over the years, Indian Railways have not only achieved self-sufficiency in production of rolling stock in the country but also supplied rolling stock to other countries and nonrailway customers. In order to keep pace with the technology change, Indian Railways has entered into an agreement with M/s General Motors, USA, for transfer of technology for manufacture of 4000 HP, state-of-the-art, AC -DC, microprocessor controlled, fuel efficient Locomotives at Diesel Locomotives Works (DLW), Varanasi and with Mis ABB manufacture of 6000 HP, 3 Phase Electric Locomotives at Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Chittaranjan. It has also entered into a transfer of technology contract for manufacture of LHB designed high-speed light weight coaches at Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Kapurthala.
Rapid progress in industrial and agricultural sectors has generated a higher level of demand for rail transport, particularly in core sectors like coal, iron and steel ores, petroleum products and essential commodities such as food grains, fertilisers, cement, sugar, salt, edible oils, etc. Some of the measures taken for improvement of the railway system are: (i) line capacity augmentation on certain critical sectors and modernisation of signalling system; (ii) measures such as unit train operation for bulk commodities like coal; (iii) increase in roller-bearing equipped wagons; (iv) increase in trailing loads to 4,500 tonnes; (v) operation 'UNIGAUGE' on Indian Railways; (vi) strengthening the track structure by providing heavier and stronger rails and concrete sleepers; and (vii) production of prototype electric locomotive of 5000 HP for freight operation by Chittaranjan Locomotive Works.
Most of the rolling stock requirements of the Indian Railways are met through domestic production. Locomotives are built at (a) Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Chittaranjan; (b) Diesel Locomotives Works (DLW), Varanasi; and (c) BHEL. Bhopal. a public sector undertaking that has developed capacity to manufacture electric locomotives. Another plant, Diesel Component Works (DCW), has been set up at Patiala in Punjab for manufacturing and repairs of components of diesel locomotives. Bulk of the passenger coaches are built at Integral Coach Factory (ICF) at Perambur near Chennai and Rail Coach Factory (RCF) at Kapurthala. The Wheel and Axle plant at Bangalore supplies most of the requirements of wheels and axles for Railways. The diesel multiple units for suburban non-electrified routes and main line electrical multiple units for electrified sections are manufactured by Integral Coach Factory, Chennai.
Both passenger and freight traffic carried by Indian Railways have been increasing.
The Research, Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO) at Lucknow is the R&D wing of Indian Railways. It functions as a consultant to the Indian Railways in technical matters and also provides consultancy to other organisations connected with railway manufacture and design. Since 1924-25, railway finances remain separated from general revenues. They have their own funds and accounts and the Railway Budget is presented separately to Parliament. However, the Railways contribute to the general revenue a dividend on the capital invested. Quantum of contribution is reviewed periodically by a Parliamentary Convention Committee.
Over the years, Indian Railways have not only achieved self-sufficiency in production of rolling stock in the country but also supplied rolling stock to other countries and nonrailway customers. In order to keep pace with the technology change, Indian Railways has entered into an agreement with M/s General Motors, USA, for transfer of technology for manufacture of 4000 HP, state-of-the-art, AC -DC, microprocessor controlled, fuel efficient Locomotives at Diesel Locomotives Works (DLW), Varanasi and with Mis ABB manufacture of 6000 HP, 3 Phase Electric Locomotives at Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Chittaranjan. It has also entered into a transfer of technology contract for manufacture of LHB designed high-speed light weight coaches at Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Kapurthala.
Rapid progress in industrial and agricultural sectors has generated a higher level of demand for rail transport, particularly in core sectors like coal, iron and steel ores, petroleum products and essential commodities such as food grains, fertilisers, cement, sugar, salt, edible oils, etc. Some of the measures taken for improvement of the railway system are: (i) line capacity augmentation on certain critical sectors and modernisation of signalling system; (ii) measures such as unit train operation for bulk commodities like coal; (iii) increase in roller-bearing equipped wagons; (iv) increase in trailing loads to 4,500 tonnes; (v) operation 'UNIGAUGE' on Indian Railways; (vi) strengthening the track structure by providing heavier and stronger rails and concrete sleepers; and (vii) production of prototype electric locomotive of 5000 HP for freight operation by Chittaranjan Locomotive Works.
Most of the rolling stock requirements of the Indian Railways are met through domestic production. Locomotives are built at (a) Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Chittaranjan; (b) Diesel Locomotives Works (DLW), Varanasi; and (c) BHEL. Bhopal. a public sector undertaking that has developed capacity to manufacture electric locomotives. Another plant, Diesel Component Works (DCW), has been set up at Patiala in Punjab for manufacturing and repairs of components of diesel locomotives. Bulk of the passenger coaches are built at Integral Coach Factory (ICF) at Perambur near Chennai and Rail Coach Factory (RCF) at Kapurthala. The Wheel and Axle plant at Bangalore supplies most of the requirements of wheels and axles for Railways. The diesel multiple units for suburban non-electrified routes and main line electrical multiple units for electrified sections are manufactured by Integral Coach Factory, Chennai.
Both passenger and freight traffic carried by Indian Railways have been increasing.
Indian Railways' Density Pattern
Indian Railways' Density Pattern The density of rail network varies, influenced as it is by terrain and population mainly.
High Density Region The northern plains with a density of 40 km line per 1000 sq km have nearly half of the total density. The factors favouring a high density in this region are a big population, level topography and an intense agriculture-industry correlation. The whole region is well connected by the rail network; but the connectivity is more efficient in the east-west direction (since, in this direction the rail lines can follow river flows). But the connectivity is not so efficient in the north-south direction, as a large number of small and big streams have to be crossed. With Delhi as the focal point, the important nodes in this region from Amritsar to Howrah include Agra, Kanpur, Lucknow, Varanasi and Patna.
Large areas of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu also constitute a high density region. High population density, a well developed economy and relatively level topography are the reasons for high density in this region.
Moderate Density Region This includes the interior peninsular region. The hilly plateau terrain and a moderate concentration of population do not allow a high rail network density. In this region, the trunk routes have been aligned in such a way that there are efficient connections between Mumbai and Chennai, Chennai and Delhi, Chennai and Hyderabad, and Chennai and Cochin.
Low Density Region This includes the Himalayan belt, western Rajasthan and the North-East. Although the Brahmaputra vaHey has two parallel lines, there is no rail line in Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh. Reasons for low density in this region are a difficult terrain, sparse population, an underdeveJoped economy and high costs involved in laying rail Jines through hills and forests. Because of the Western Ghats being too close to the coast, there was no rail line there, but with the completion of the Konkan Rail Project, rail network density is expected to increase along the west coast. The Eastern Ghats, on the other hand, are away from the coast, and therefore a trunk line is provided there.
High Density Region The northern plains with a density of 40 km line per 1000 sq km have nearly half of the total density. The factors favouring a high density in this region are a big population, level topography and an intense agriculture-industry correlation. The whole region is well connected by the rail network; but the connectivity is more efficient in the east-west direction (since, in this direction the rail lines can follow river flows). But the connectivity is not so efficient in the north-south direction, as a large number of small and big streams have to be crossed. With Delhi as the focal point, the important nodes in this region from Amritsar to Howrah include Agra, Kanpur, Lucknow, Varanasi and Patna.
Large areas of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu also constitute a high density region. High population density, a well developed economy and relatively level topography are the reasons for high density in this region.
Moderate Density Region This includes the interior peninsular region. The hilly plateau terrain and a moderate concentration of population do not allow a high rail network density. In this region, the trunk routes have been aligned in such a way that there are efficient connections between Mumbai and Chennai, Chennai and Delhi, Chennai and Hyderabad, and Chennai and Cochin.
Low Density Region This includes the Himalayan belt, western Rajasthan and the North-East. Although the Brahmaputra vaHey has two parallel lines, there is no rail line in Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur and Arunachal Pradesh. Reasons for low density in this region are a difficult terrain, sparse population, an underdeveJoped economy and high costs involved in laying rail Jines through hills and forests. Because of the Western Ghats being too close to the coast, there was no rail line there, but with the completion of the Konkan Rail Project, rail network density is expected to increase along the west coast. The Eastern Ghats, on the other hand, are away from the coast, and therefore a trunk line is provided there.
Influence of Geographical Factors on Indian Railways
Influence of Geographical Factors on Indian Railways Geographical factors favoured the development of railways in certain respects and discouraged it in some other respects. The northern plains had level tOJ3ography, high population density and intense agricultural and industrial activity. These factors favoured the laying of rail lines through this region. At the same time, a network of rivers had to be overcome by bridges which involved heavy expenditure and difficulty in construction because of wide flood plains and swift flow at the thalweg (i.e., bottommiddle) and also, frequent floods implied huge maintenance costs.
The peninsula has a rugged, hilly terrain. As a result, the rail links have to pass through low hills, gaps and river valleys, or tunnels. A fine example of rail links through gaps and valleys is the Mumbai-Chennai link through Bhorghat, Bhima valley and Pennar valley.
The Himalayan region being mountainous and forested, the rail density is either low or absent. In this region, the rail lines have managed to reach the foothills such as Jammu, Hardwar, Dehradun, Kathgodam, Kotdwar, Darjeeling (through Siliguri) and Shimla (from Kalka). The sandy plains of Rajasthan are another example of a difficult terrain discouraging the development of railways. This region is also characterised by sparse population. Till 1966, there was no rail link from Jodhpur to Jaisalmer. In western Rajasthan, only a few metre gauge railway lines have managed to penetrate the arid tract.
The thickly forested tracts of Madhya Pradesh and Orissa and the deltaic swamps of West Bengal have also been unfavourable for the development of the railway network. The hilly and forested tract of the Sahyadri was also devoid of a continuous railway link along the west coast. Now Konkan rail line has filled this void. The completion of the Konkan Rail in 1998 has been a milestone in the history of Indian Railways. The rail route connects Roha in Maharashtra with Mangalore in Karnataka. The Konkan Railway Corporation (KRC), a public sector undertaking established with the partnership of three states (Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka), has completed the project. The Konkan rail route is indeed an engineering marvel. Enroute, it crosses 146 rivers and streams. There are about 2,000 bridges and 73 tunnels that connect the 760 kilometre stretch, including Asia's longest (6.44 km) rail tunnel. Apart from this, the rail links penetrate upto the coast along the gaps. Mumbai, Vasco da Gama, Mangalore and Cochin are the examples of such rail heads.
The peninsula has a rugged, hilly terrain. As a result, the rail links have to pass through low hills, gaps and river valleys, or tunnels. A fine example of rail links through gaps and valleys is the Mumbai-Chennai link through Bhorghat, Bhima valley and Pennar valley.
The Himalayan region being mountainous and forested, the rail density is either low or absent. In this region, the rail lines have managed to reach the foothills such as Jammu, Hardwar, Dehradun, Kathgodam, Kotdwar, Darjeeling (through Siliguri) and Shimla (from Kalka). The sandy plains of Rajasthan are another example of a difficult terrain discouraging the development of railways. This region is also characterised by sparse population. Till 1966, there was no rail link from Jodhpur to Jaisalmer. In western Rajasthan, only a few metre gauge railway lines have managed to penetrate the arid tract.
The thickly forested tracts of Madhya Pradesh and Orissa and the deltaic swamps of West Bengal have also been unfavourable for the development of the railway network. The hilly and forested tract of the Sahyadri was also devoid of a continuous railway link along the west coast. Now Konkan rail line has filled this void. The completion of the Konkan Rail in 1998 has been a milestone in the history of Indian Railways. The rail route connects Roha in Maharashtra with Mangalore in Karnataka. The Konkan Railway Corporation (KRC), a public sector undertaking established with the partnership of three states (Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka), has completed the project. The Konkan rail route is indeed an engineering marvel. Enroute, it crosses 146 rivers and streams. There are about 2,000 bridges and 73 tunnels that connect the 760 kilometre stretch, including Asia's longest (6.44 km) rail tunnel. Apart from this, the rail links penetrate upto the coast along the gaps. Mumbai, Vasco da Gama, Mangalore and Cochin are the examples of such rail heads.
RAILWAY ZONES AND THEIR HEADQUARTERS
RAILWAY ZONES AND THEIR HEADQUARTERS
Zonal Railways = Headquarters
Central Railway = Mumbai CST
Eastern Railway = Kolkata
Northern Railway = New Delhi
North Eastern Railway = Gorakhpur
Northeast Frontier Railway = Maligaon (Guwahati)
Southern Railway = Chennai
South Central Railway = Secunderabad
South Eastern Railway = Kolkata
Western Railway = Church Gate, Mumbai
East Central Railway = Hajipur
East Coast Railway = Bhubaneshwar
North Central Railway = Allahabad
North Western Railway = Jaipur
South East Central Railway = Bilaspur
South Western Railway = Hubli
West Central Railway = Jabalpur
Zonal Railways = Headquarters
Central Railway = Mumbai CST
Eastern Railway = Kolkata
Northern Railway = New Delhi
North Eastern Railway = Gorakhpur
Northeast Frontier Railway = Maligaon (Guwahati)
Southern Railway = Chennai
South Central Railway = Secunderabad
South Eastern Railway = Kolkata
Western Railway = Church Gate, Mumbai
East Central Railway = Hajipur
East Coast Railway = Bhubaneshwar
North Central Railway = Allahabad
North Western Railway = Jaipur
South East Central Railway = Bilaspur
South Western Railway = Hubli
West Central Railway = Jabalpur
IMPORTANT NATIONAL HIGHWAYS
IMPORTANT NATIONAL HIGHWAYS
National Route Total Length
Highway No. (km)
1 Delhi-Amritsar 456
2 Delhi-Kolkata 1.490
3 Agra-Mumbai 1,161
4 Thane-Chennai 1,235
5 Jharpokharia-Chennai 1,533
(along east coast)
6 Hajira-Kolkata 1.949
7 Varanasi-Kanyakumari 2,369
(longest in the country)
8 Delhi-Mumbai 1,428
(via Rajasthan-Gujarat)
15 Pathankot-Samakhiali 1,526
(along Indo-Pak border)
17 Panvel-Edapally 1.269
(along west coast)
24 Delhi-Lucknow 438
RAILWAYS
RAILWAYS It was in 1825 that the first public railway was opened between Stockton and Darlington in northern England. Trains are very important in such countries as Britain, the USA and Japan to carry people from home to places of work. In places where roads are poor, or where the number of people owning cars is small, rail transport has a vital role in passenger transport. In Europe and the USA, however, cars have replaced trains for many' passenger journeys. The greatest railway densities are found in the industrial regions of western Europe, with Belgium leading. Underground railways are important in many European cities, e.g., London, Paris, Moscow.
Transcontinental Railways In vast countries, such as Russia, Canada, US and Australia, there are rail routes that run across the entire breadths of the continents. Such railways are known as transcontinental railways. The Trans-
Siberian Railway, the longest railway of the world, is an example of the transcontinental railways. It runs from Leningrad and Moscow in the west to Vladivostok in the east. It serves as the most important east-west link for goods and passengers in Siberia and has had an important part to play in the peopling of the empty lands of Siberia. The length of the Trans-Siberian Railway is about 9,000 km.
Some other examples of the transcontinental railways are: Canadian Pacific Railway, which connects St. John in New Brunswick with Vancouver on the Pacific coast; Canadian National Railways, which joins Halifax in Nova Scotia with Prince Rupert in British Columbia. The US, Chile, Australia also have transcontinental railways.
Railways in India The first train in India steamed off from Bombay to Thane, a stretch of 34 km, in 1853. Today, India has the largest rail network in Asia and ranks fourth in the world in this regard. By end of 2004, the total route length in the country was 63,221 km, comprising broad gauge (46,807 km), metre gauge (13,290 km) and narrow gauge (3,124 km). Broad gauge has a width of 1.675 metres, metre gauge of 1.00 metre and the narrow gauge of 0.762 metre and 0.610 metre. Electrified networks account for about 28 per cent of the total route kilometrage. Indian Railways have grown into a vast network of 7,031 stations
Transcontinental Railways In vast countries, such as Russia, Canada, US and Australia, there are rail routes that run across the entire breadths of the continents. Such railways are known as transcontinental railways. The Trans-
Siberian Railway, the longest railway of the world, is an example of the transcontinental railways. It runs from Leningrad and Moscow in the west to Vladivostok in the east. It serves as the most important east-west link for goods and passengers in Siberia and has had an important part to play in the peopling of the empty lands of Siberia. The length of the Trans-Siberian Railway is about 9,000 km.
Some other examples of the transcontinental railways are: Canadian Pacific Railway, which connects St. John in New Brunswick with Vancouver on the Pacific coast; Canadian National Railways, which joins Halifax in Nova Scotia with Prince Rupert in British Columbia. The US, Chile, Australia also have transcontinental railways.
Railways in India The first train in India steamed off from Bombay to Thane, a stretch of 34 km, in 1853. Today, India has the largest rail network in Asia and ranks fourth in the world in this regard. By end of 2004, the total route length in the country was 63,221 km, comprising broad gauge (46,807 km), metre gauge (13,290 km) and narrow gauge (3,124 km). Broad gauge has a width of 1.675 metres, metre gauge of 1.00 metre and the narrow gauge of 0.762 metre and 0.610 metre. Electrified networks account for about 28 per cent of the total route kilometrage. Indian Railways have grown into a vast network of 7,031 stations
Indian Roadways
Indian Roadways With a network of over 3.3 million km, India has the third largest road network in the world, In India, the Nagpur Plan for Road Development (194454) for the first time gave a four-fold classification of roads-national highways, state highways, district roads and rural roads.
National Highways are highways which run through the length and breadth of the country and connect state capitals, port towns, industrial and mining areas and cities and towns of national importance., The national highways are maintained by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD).
State Highways are the main arteries of commerce and passenger transport within a state. These highways connect practically every town in the state with its capital. all district headquarters, important areas within states and all these areas with the national highways. Construction and maintenance of state highways is the responsibility of state governments.
District Roads are the roads which connect towns and large villages with one another and with district headquarters. These are mostly unsurfaced and lack bridges and culverts. Their development and maintenance is the responsibility of the zila parishads, and the respective public works departments.
Rural Roads roads link villages with district roads. They are mostly unsurfaced, narrow and zig-zag tracks unsuitable for heavy mechanised traffic and are usable only during fair weather.
Besides these four, there are three other types-border roads, international highways and express highways.
The Border Road Development Board was set up in 1960 to speed up economic development in the underdeveloped border areas which are densely forested, mountainous and desert areas. Another objective was to maintain essential supplies for defence personnel. The Border Roads Organisation (BRa) is the executive wing which is responsible for construction and maintenance of roads in hilly areas of the Himalayas and the north-east and in desert areas of Rajasthan. Now the BRa is also involved in construction of ports and helipads.
International Highways are the highways which have been constructed with aid from the World Bank. under an agreement with the Economic and Social Commission for Asia-Pacific (ESCAP). Their purpose is to link India's important roads with those of the neighbouring countries, viz., Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar.
Express Highways have been built for fast movement of traffic in the country. There are five sllch highways
(i) western express highway,
(ii) eastern express highway,
(iii) highway between Kolkata and Dum Durn airport,
(iv) highway between Sukinda mines and Paradip port in Orissa,
(v) express highway between Durgapur and Kolkata.
Many of the major road routes have existed since ancient times. India inherited a poor road network after independence. Unlike the railways, an inland network was developed first and then there was an outward movement (towards the ports) of the road network.
The first five states with the highest density of surfaced roads in India are Goa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Haryana, in that order. Overall, the Punjab-Haryana plains, the Ganga plains, the Karnataka plateau, the Tamil Nadu plains and Kerala have a high density while the Deccan region has a moderate density of road network. Low density of roads exists in the Himalayan region, in the north-eastern region which is hilly and forested and in the desert areas of Rajasthan. Thus the major limiting factors, as far as road network density is considered, are difficult terrain which makes development of roads costly in these areas, a sparse population and low levels of economic development which are not capable of generating enough ttaffic.
National Highways are highways which run through the length and breadth of the country and connect state capitals, port towns, industrial and mining areas and cities and towns of national importance., The national highways are maintained by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD).
State Highways are the main arteries of commerce and passenger transport within a state. These highways connect practically every town in the state with its capital. all district headquarters, important areas within states and all these areas with the national highways. Construction and maintenance of state highways is the responsibility of state governments.
District Roads are the roads which connect towns and large villages with one another and with district headquarters. These are mostly unsurfaced and lack bridges and culverts. Their development and maintenance is the responsibility of the zila parishads, and the respective public works departments.
Rural Roads roads link villages with district roads. They are mostly unsurfaced, narrow and zig-zag tracks unsuitable for heavy mechanised traffic and are usable only during fair weather.
Besides these four, there are three other types-border roads, international highways and express highways.
The Border Road Development Board was set up in 1960 to speed up economic development in the underdeveloped border areas which are densely forested, mountainous and desert areas. Another objective was to maintain essential supplies for defence personnel. The Border Roads Organisation (BRa) is the executive wing which is responsible for construction and maintenance of roads in hilly areas of the Himalayas and the north-east and in desert areas of Rajasthan. Now the BRa is also involved in construction of ports and helipads.
International Highways are the highways which have been constructed with aid from the World Bank. under an agreement with the Economic and Social Commission for Asia-Pacific (ESCAP). Their purpose is to link India's important roads with those of the neighbouring countries, viz., Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar.
Express Highways have been built for fast movement of traffic in the country. There are five sllch highways
(i) western express highway,
(ii) eastern express highway,
(iii) highway between Kolkata and Dum Durn airport,
(iv) highway between Sukinda mines and Paradip port in Orissa,
(v) express highway between Durgapur and Kolkata.
Many of the major road routes have existed since ancient times. India inherited a poor road network after independence. Unlike the railways, an inland network was developed first and then there was an outward movement (towards the ports) of the road network.
The first five states with the highest density of surfaced roads in India are Goa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Haryana, in that order. Overall, the Punjab-Haryana plains, the Ganga plains, the Karnataka plateau, the Tamil Nadu plains and Kerala have a high density while the Deccan region has a moderate density of road network. Low density of roads exists in the Himalayan region, in the north-eastern region which is hilly and forested and in the desert areas of Rajasthan. Thus the major limiting factors, as far as road network density is considered, are difficult terrain which makes development of roads costly in these areas, a sparse population and low levels of economic development which are not capable of generating enough ttaffic.
TRANSPORT: ROADS
TRANSPORT
A. ROADS Roads are found everywhere in every form. Earliest roads were paths made by constant passage of human beings and animals. The first major road was the Persian Royal Road, which extended from the Persian Gulf to the Aegean Sea over a distance of 2,857 km and was used from about 3,000 to 300 BC The" Amber Routes" were the earliest European roads and extended from Greece and Tuscany to the Baltic Sea. In East Asia, the Chinese built a road system that linked its major cities and had a combined length of about 3,200 km.
The Romans were the first to construct roads systematically. However, with the decline of Rome, its roads fell into disrepair, and other than some interest in municipal street paving in the 15th and 16th centuries, there was little road-building activities in the West for more than 1,500 years.
Construction of roads was revived in the eighteenth century when systematically built and surfaced roads came into existence. The names of Telford, Metcalfe and McAdam are associated with pioneering efforts at road building in Britain. It was only when the motor came to be widely used that the majority of roads were widened, surfaced and improved. Roads are most suitable for short and medium distances. Other advantages are flexibility, reliability, speed and door-to-door service.
One of the first countries to establish a nationwide highway network was Germany. It was on Hitler's idea that.
a large mileage of highways in Germany called autobahns were developed. Autobahns are straight roads cutting directly across country, and have a good surface. Other European nations such as Belgium, Italy, France and Britain have also c,onstructed major ltighway networks known by various names such as autoroutes (France), autostrade (Italy), motorways (England) and highways (America). The construction of good, long-distance roads has benefited tourism in many countries. T
he Pan-American highway, and the Brasillia-Belem roads across Brazil, for example, link the south to the Amazon ih South America. Trans-Canadian Highway links Vancouver in British Columbia (west coast) and St. John City in Newfoundland (east coast). Likewise, Alaskan Highway links Edmonton in Canada and Anchorage in Alaska. Trans-Continental Stuart Highway in Australia connects Darwin in north and Melbourne in Victoria via Tennanat Creek and Alice Spring.
The prototype of the modern' superhighway was the Bronx River Parkwa.y, which was completed in 1925 in New York city.
A. ROADS Roads are found everywhere in every form. Earliest roads were paths made by constant passage of human beings and animals. The first major road was the Persian Royal Road, which extended from the Persian Gulf to the Aegean Sea over a distance of 2,857 km and was used from about 3,000 to 300 BC The" Amber Routes" were the earliest European roads and extended from Greece and Tuscany to the Baltic Sea. In East Asia, the Chinese built a road system that linked its major cities and had a combined length of about 3,200 km.
The Romans were the first to construct roads systematically. However, with the decline of Rome, its roads fell into disrepair, and other than some interest in municipal street paving in the 15th and 16th centuries, there was little road-building activities in the West for more than 1,500 years.
Construction of roads was revived in the eighteenth century when systematically built and surfaced roads came into existence. The names of Telford, Metcalfe and McAdam are associated with pioneering efforts at road building in Britain. It was only when the motor came to be widely used that the majority of roads were widened, surfaced and improved. Roads are most suitable for short and medium distances. Other advantages are flexibility, reliability, speed and door-to-door service.
One of the first countries to establish a nationwide highway network was Germany. It was on Hitler's idea that.
a large mileage of highways in Germany called autobahns were developed. Autobahns are straight roads cutting directly across country, and have a good surface. Other European nations such as Belgium, Italy, France and Britain have also c,onstructed major ltighway networks known by various names such as autoroutes (France), autostrade (Italy), motorways (England) and highways (America). The construction of good, long-distance roads has benefited tourism in many countries. T
he Pan-American highway, and the Brasillia-Belem roads across Brazil, for example, link the south to the Amazon ih South America. Trans-Canadian Highway links Vancouver in British Columbia (west coast) and St. John City in Newfoundland (east coast). Likewise, Alaskan Highway links Edmonton in Canada and Anchorage in Alaska. Trans-Continental Stuart Highway in Australia connects Darwin in north and Melbourne in Victoria via Tennanat Creek and Alice Spring.
The prototype of the modern' superhighway was the Bronx River Parkwa.y, which was completed in 1925 in New York city.
Prospects and Programmes of Development of Solar Energy in India
Prospects and Programmes of Development of Solar Energy in India In India, the average global radiation is around 4-7 kWh per sq m per day with about 2,300-3,200 sunshine hours per year, which can be judiciously exploited to meet our ever increasing energy requirements.
Since inception the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sottrces (MNES) has been implementing a solar energy programme to provide electricity to rural and remote areas, make energy available for pumping of water for irrigation and drinking purposes and generating thermal energy for water heating, cooking, distillation of water and drying of farm products. Significant progress has been achieved both in terms of development of various solar energy products and their utilisation. The importanc~ of solar energy as a means of energy generation and conservation has been recognised by users in a number of sectors.
Solar water heating, solar cooking, solar air heating, solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells and solar buildings are important components of the Indian solar energy programme.Besides the above-mentioned sources, biomass is also an important alternative source of power generation.
Since inception the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sottrces (MNES) has been implementing a solar energy programme to provide electricity to rural and remote areas, make energy available for pumping of water for irrigation and drinking purposes and generating thermal energy for water heating, cooking, distillation of water and drying of farm products. Significant progress has been achieved both in terms of development of various solar energy products and their utilisation. The importanc~ of solar energy as a means of energy generation and conservation has been recognised by users in a number of sectors.
Solar water heating, solar cooking, solar air heating, solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells and solar buildings are important components of the Indian solar energy programme.Besides the above-mentioned sources, biomass is also an important alternative source of power generation.
Solar Energy
Solar Energy Solar energy represents the earth's most abundant energy resource. Apart from its direct availability for diverse applications, solar energy is responsible for the creation of other renewable energy sources such as wind, flowing streams and rivers, photosynthetic production of biomass and thermal gradients in the ocean. Solar energy is being used by mankind from time immemorial for various purposes. More recent applications of solar energy, such as its direct conversion to electricity and transformation to thermal energy at various temperatures, have expanded its potential use enormously. It has a number of characteristics that make it a verv' desirable option to meet the increasing energy needs of a growing population like ours. A peren.nial source with an unlimited.
supply, solar energy has no negative impact on environment and is available everywhere freely. Its suitability for decentralised applications and envIronmentally benign nature make it a very attractive option to supplement the energy supply from other sources.
supply, solar energy has no negative impact on environment and is available everywhere freely. Its suitability for decentralised applications and envIronmentally benign nature make it a very attractive option to supplement the energy supply from other sources.
Wind Energy
Wind Energy Wind power has been harnessed for centuries for pumping water for irrigation and driving mills. It can also be used for generating electricity.
According to the annual report (2004-05) of the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources, (MNES) on shore wind power potential in India has been assessed at 45,000 MW assuming one per cent of land availability for wind power generation in the potential areas. However, technical potential is limited to only 13,000 MW assuming 20 per cent grid penetration, which will go up with the augmentation of grid capacity in potential states. India has the fifth largest wind power installed capacity in the world.
The coastal states of Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Orissa are better placed in regard to wind energy, as constant wind speeds above 10 km per hour are prevalent over coastal regions of these states. Notable progress has been made in the manufacture of wind turbines and wind turbine components to meet the domestic as well as export markets. Tamil Nadu leads the wind power development accounting for about 54 per cent of the total installed capacity.
The Centre for Wind Energy Technology (C-WET) is implementing the Wind Resources Assessment Programme in coordination with the state nodal agencies. As many as 25 states and Union territories are covered under the Programme, which involves establishment of around 1,150 wind monitoring and wind mapping stations. Of these, 50 monitoring stations are at present in operation and the remaining stations have been closed down after collection of data.
According to the annual report (2004-05) of the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources, (MNES) on shore wind power potential in India has been assessed at 45,000 MW assuming one per cent of land availability for wind power generation in the potential areas. However, technical potential is limited to only 13,000 MW assuming 20 per cent grid penetration, which will go up with the augmentation of grid capacity in potential states. India has the fifth largest wind power installed capacity in the world.
The coastal states of Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Orissa are better placed in regard to wind energy, as constant wind speeds above 10 km per hour are prevalent over coastal regions of these states. Notable progress has been made in the manufacture of wind turbines and wind turbine components to meet the domestic as well as export markets. Tamil Nadu leads the wind power development accounting for about 54 per cent of the total installed capacity.
The Centre for Wind Energy Technology (C-WET) is implementing the Wind Resources Assessment Programme in coordination with the state nodal agencies. As many as 25 states and Union territories are covered under the Programme, which involves establishment of around 1,150 wind monitoring and wind mapping stations. Of these, 50 monitoring stations are at present in operation and the remaining stations have been closed down after collection of data.
Tidal Energy
Tidal Energy The vast potential of energy of the seas and oceans, which cover about three-fourth of our planet, can make a significant contribution to tide over the energy crisis. Ocean contains renewable energy in the form of temperature gradients, waves, tides and ocean currents, which can be used to generate electricity in an environment-friendly manner. Tidal power, wave power and ocean thermal energy conversion are the three most well developed technologies. The realisation of power from ocean at present is limited because of large technological gaps and limited resources. With the present technology only tides can be harnessed on commercial basis.
Tidal power has already been successfully developed on the Rance Estuary in Brittany, France. Other coastal countries have also taken steps to harness this alternative source for producing electricity. However, there are only few sites in the whole world where it could be developed. Further, initial development costs of generating tidal energy are enormous.
Progress in India In India, the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat and the delta of the Ganga in Sunderbans area of West Bengal have so far been known as potential sites for generating tidal power. However, a systematic study to assess the tidal power potential in the country through the Central Water and Power Research Station, Pune is being planned. Research, development, surveys and demonstration projects on the development of ocean energy are being taken up through various research, scientific and educational institutions, national laboratories, universities, industries and user organisations.
A detailed project report for setting up of a tidal power plant of 3 MW capacity at Durgaduani Creek in Sunderbans area of West Bengal, prepared through the West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency (WBREDA), Kolkata, has been examined and it is found that current technology levels cannot produce electricity at economically acceptable rates.
Tidal power has already been successfully developed on the Rance Estuary in Brittany, France. Other coastal countries have also taken steps to harness this alternative source for producing electricity. However, there are only few sites in the whole world where it could be developed. Further, initial development costs of generating tidal energy are enormous.
Progress in India In India, the Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat and the delta of the Ganga in Sunderbans area of West Bengal have so far been known as potential sites for generating tidal power. However, a systematic study to assess the tidal power potential in the country through the Central Water and Power Research Station, Pune is being planned. Research, development, surveys and demonstration projects on the development of ocean energy are being taken up through various research, scientific and educational institutions, national laboratories, universities, industries and user organisations.
A detailed project report for setting up of a tidal power plant of 3 MW capacity at Durgaduani Creek in Sunderbans area of West Bengal, prepared through the West Bengal Renewable Energy Development Agency (WBREDA), Kolkata, has been examined and it is found that current technology levels cannot produce electricity at economically acceptable rates.
ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY: Geothermal Energy
ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY
(i) Geothermal Energy This a kind of energy available as heat emitted from within the earth's crust. usually as hot springs, emissions of dry or wet steam. Geothermal energy can be harnessed for power generation, space heating and other thermal applications.
Geothermal energy is most used in Iceland, where it supplies about 15 per cent of the total domestic demand of electricity, mostly for central heating, which, includes domestic heating for the whole of the capital, Reykjavik. Italy, US, Japan, New Zealand, the Philippines, Turkey and former USSR have also shown keen interest in exploiting geothermal power from steam or hot water sources.
Progress in India Preliminary data of resource assessment has been generated for 340 hot springs in the country.
Magneto telluricjnvestigations for assessing the suitability of sites and other studies have been taken up at a few sites through National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad. The NGRI has been conducting magnetotelluric (MT) studies in Satluj-Spiti, Beas and Parbati valley in Himachal Pradesh, Badrinath-Tapovan in Uttaranchal and Surajkund in Jharkhand. According to MNES sources, a total of 36 stations have been set up in Badrinath-Tapovan region to collect the data, which is being analysed through computer modeling and quantitative interpretation. Currently, harnessing geothermal energy is not commercially viable.
(i) Geothermal Energy This a kind of energy available as heat emitted from within the earth's crust. usually as hot springs, emissions of dry or wet steam. Geothermal energy can be harnessed for power generation, space heating and other thermal applications.
Geothermal energy is most used in Iceland, where it supplies about 15 per cent of the total domestic demand of electricity, mostly for central heating, which, includes domestic heating for the whole of the capital, Reykjavik. Italy, US, Japan, New Zealand, the Philippines, Turkey and former USSR have also shown keen interest in exploiting geothermal power from steam or hot water sources.
Progress in India Preliminary data of resource assessment has been generated for 340 hot springs in the country.
Magneto telluricjnvestigations for assessing the suitability of sites and other studies have been taken up at a few sites through National Geophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad. The NGRI has been conducting magnetotelluric (MT) studies in Satluj-Spiti, Beas and Parbati valley in Himachal Pradesh, Badrinath-Tapovan in Uttaranchal and Surajkund in Jharkhand. According to MNES sources, a total of 36 stations have been set up in Badrinath-Tapovan region to collect the data, which is being analysed through computer modeling and quantitative interpretation. Currently, harnessing geothermal energy is not commercially viable.
Nuclear Energy in India
Nuclear Energy in India The building of nuclear power stations in India was originally in the hands of a Power Projects Engineering Division. In 1984, this division was reconstituted as the Nuclear Power Board, converted later (1987) into the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL). The NPCIL is responsible for designing, constructing, commissioning and operating all nuclear power reactors in the country.
The Tarapur Atomic Power Station (TAPS) was commissioned in 1969, signalling the start of generation of electricity from nuclear energy. It has two 210 MW(e)capacity boiling water reactors fuelled by enriched uranium. They were set up by an American company as turn-key projects. TAPS, that provides electricity to Gujarat and Maharashtra, has completed 20 years of commercial operation.
The Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (RAPS) at Rawatbhatta has two prototype PHWR units of 220 MW(e) capacity each, using natural uranium as fueL It supplies electricity to Rajasthan. The two units attained criticality in 1972 and 1981. RAPS, an NPC station governed by the DAE, also falls under international safeguards.
The third unit of RAPS-3 at Rawatbhatta went critical in 1999, thus crossing a significant milestone in India's nuclear power programme. RAPS-3 (and RAPS-4) consists of PHWRs of a kind similar to those which have already been set up in Canada, Pakistan, Argentina, Romania and South Korea.
Rawatbhatta has a special place in our nuclear programme. It has a number of firsts to its credit. It is the first PHWRs and represents our first successful en masse coolant channels replacement and now it is the first stateof-the-art PHWR.
The Madras Atomic Power Station (MAPS) at Kalpakkam started commercial operation in 1984. The twq PHWRs are indigenously designed and constructed-the first such in India which provide electricity to Chennai.
The Narora Atomic Power Station (NAPS) in Uttar Pradesh has two PHWR units of 220 MW(e) each. These are standardised versions on which the design of all future 220 MW(e) PHWRs is to be based. NAPS provides electricity to Uttar Pradesh and Delhi.
At the Kakrapara Atomic Power Station (KAPS), in Gujarat, a 220 MW(e) reactor has synchronised with the grid. With this the installed capacity for nuclear power generation in the country has come to 1,720 MW(e).
The first power reactor of the Kaiga Atomic Power Station in Karnataka attained criticality in September 1999 and was synchronised with the power grid in December 1999. The second power reactor attained criticality in September 2000.
The Tarapur Atomic Power Station (TAPS) was commissioned in 1969, signalling the start of generation of electricity from nuclear energy. It has two 210 MW(e)capacity boiling water reactors fuelled by enriched uranium. They were set up by an American company as turn-key projects. TAPS, that provides electricity to Gujarat and Maharashtra, has completed 20 years of commercial operation.
The Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (RAPS) at Rawatbhatta has two prototype PHWR units of 220 MW(e) capacity each, using natural uranium as fueL It supplies electricity to Rajasthan. The two units attained criticality in 1972 and 1981. RAPS, an NPC station governed by the DAE, also falls under international safeguards.
The third unit of RAPS-3 at Rawatbhatta went critical in 1999, thus crossing a significant milestone in India's nuclear power programme. RAPS-3 (and RAPS-4) consists of PHWRs of a kind similar to those which have already been set up in Canada, Pakistan, Argentina, Romania and South Korea.
Rawatbhatta has a special place in our nuclear programme. It has a number of firsts to its credit. It is the first PHWRs and represents our first successful en masse coolant channels replacement and now it is the first stateof-the-art PHWR.
The Madras Atomic Power Station (MAPS) at Kalpakkam started commercial operation in 1984. The twq PHWRs are indigenously designed and constructed-the first such in India which provide electricity to Chennai.
The Narora Atomic Power Station (NAPS) in Uttar Pradesh has two PHWR units of 220 MW(e) each. These are standardised versions on which the design of all future 220 MW(e) PHWRs is to be based. NAPS provides electricity to Uttar Pradesh and Delhi.
At the Kakrapara Atomic Power Station (KAPS), in Gujarat, a 220 MW(e) reactor has synchronised with the grid. With this the installed capacity for nuclear power generation in the country has come to 1,720 MW(e).
The first power reactor of the Kaiga Atomic Power Station in Karnataka attained criticality in September 1999 and was synchronised with the power grid in December 1999. The second power reactor attained criticality in September 2000.
NUCLEAR POWER
NUCLEAR POWER The use of atomic/nuclear energy for generating energy is a relatively new development. Nuclear energy is produced by using radioactive fuels, such as uranium, thorium, plutonium or by fusion, using heavy isotopes of hydrogen. It is an efficient but expensive and potentially hazardous source of power generation.
World Distribution of Nuclear Power The first nuclear power station was built in Britain in 1956 at Calder HalL Britain was rapidly overtaken in this field by the USA. Nuclear power provides 11 per cent of the USA's electricity supplies. Majority of the nuclear reactors in the US are concentrated in three areas: (a) the region between Massachusetts and northern Virginia, accounting for about onefourth of the country's total capacity; (b) the Chicago region; and (c) an area extending from Carolina westward across northern Georgia, Alabama and Tennessee state borders.
Other major European and American producers of nuclear energy are: France, Russia, Germany, UK, Sweden, Finland cU1d Canada. In Asia, Japan, China, India and Pakistan are major nuclear-energy producing nations. Argenhnil is the major nuclear-energy producing South American country.
However, despite rapid growth of nuclear energy generation in the world, the share of the nuclear energy in the total power consumption in most of the countries is relatively low.
World Distribution of Nuclear Power The first nuclear power station was built in Britain in 1956 at Calder HalL Britain was rapidly overtaken in this field by the USA. Nuclear power provides 11 per cent of the USA's electricity supplies. Majority of the nuclear reactors in the US are concentrated in three areas: (a) the region between Massachusetts and northern Virginia, accounting for about onefourth of the country's total capacity; (b) the Chicago region; and (c) an area extending from Carolina westward across northern Georgia, Alabama and Tennessee state borders.
Other major European and American producers of nuclear energy are: France, Russia, Germany, UK, Sweden, Finland cU1d Canada. In Asia, Japan, China, India and Pakistan are major nuclear-energy producing nations. Argenhnil is the major nuclear-energy producing South American country.
However, despite rapid growth of nuclear energy generation in the world, the share of the nuclear energy in the total power consumption in most of the countries is relatively low.
THERMAL POWER
THERMAL POWER Power produced by burning fuels such as coal, petroleum, or natural gas in thermal generators or specially designed furnaces is thermal electricity. Thermal plants depend on a supply of solid or liquid fuels, so they are better situated near coalfields, oil or natural gas fields, or at importing ports where oil is refined. The generation of electricity releases much heat, so a great deal of water is required for cooling purposes. Thus, nearness to a large river, lake, estuary or a coastal site is useful. Also advantageous is a location near the main markets of electricity (such as industrial centres, towns with a large domestic power demand).
World Distribution of Thermal Power The highest number of thermal plants are situated in the densely populated and heavily industrialised areas of western Europe and north-eastern North America. The USA leads as producer and consumer.
Thermal Power in India India's thermal power production is much lower than its demand. In the early stages of power development in India, the thermal power stations consisted of several small and widely scattered units with very little network connection. The first step in development of thermal power on a large scale in the country was the setting up of a 4 x 60 MW power station at Bokaro (Jharkhand) under DVC programme. This power station has been the forerunner of a chain of large thermal power stations that have subsequently been developed.
Today, ~ndia has several thermal power projects spread across the country. (See the table on major power projects in India.)
problems of Indian Thermal Power Stations The thermal power stations often face some serious problems such as poor and erratic supply of coal, frequent breakdown of power systems, assumption of unreasonable gestation periods and power management. The coals supplied for thermal power stations often contain high ash content. Again the short supply of coal to thermal station has been primarily due to non-availability of wagons in time and the long turn-round time involved. Lastly, the supply of sub-standard equipment and lack of after-sales service have also made matters worse.
World Distribution of Thermal Power The highest number of thermal plants are situated in the densely populated and heavily industrialised areas of western Europe and north-eastern North America. The USA leads as producer and consumer.
Thermal Power in India India's thermal power production is much lower than its demand. In the early stages of power development in India, the thermal power stations consisted of several small and widely scattered units with very little network connection. The first step in development of thermal power on a large scale in the country was the setting up of a 4 x 60 MW power station at Bokaro (Jharkhand) under DVC programme. This power station has been the forerunner of a chain of large thermal power stations that have subsequently been developed.
Today, ~ndia has several thermal power projects spread across the country. (See the table on major power projects in India.)
problems of Indian Thermal Power Stations The thermal power stations often face some serious problems such as poor and erratic supply of coal, frequent breakdown of power systems, assumption of unreasonable gestation periods and power management. The coals supplied for thermal power stations often contain high ash content. Again the short supply of coal to thermal station has been primarily due to non-availability of wagons in time and the long turn-round time involved. Lastly, the supply of sub-standard equipment and lack of after-sales service have also made matters worse.
Hydel Power
POWER/ELECTRICITY
Electricity, though a comparatively recent development, has become indispensable - to us today. The main ways of deriving electricity is from burning fuels (thermal) and running water (hydro-electricity). Other sources are nuclear energy and non-conventional sources like wind and sun.
HYDEL POWER Hydro-electricity development is dependent upon the following factors: (a) a head of water, waterfalls are useful, a dam may be built to create falling water; (b) large amounts of water to make it more economic; (c) regular and reliable supply of water; (d) presence of lakes which are useful for water storage; (e) space for a reservoir. Heavy capital investment is needed as maintenance costs are also high.
World Distribution of Hydel Power Many hydroelectric power (HEP) generating plants are situated in uplands where the rivers and streams have a steep gradient and waterfalls are common, e.g., in Scandinavia, the Swiss Alps, the Rocky Mountains, the Japanese Alps and the Appalachians. Rivers with a low gradient but a large.
yolume of water can also be used, e.g., the River Shannon in Ireland or the River Volta in Ghana. HEP stations are usually found in: (i) mountainous areas, especially those which have been glaciated and have many waterfalls and lakes, (ii) tropical and temperate regions which experiences a moderate to heavy well-distributed rainfall, (iii) on major rivers with a large volume of water, (iv) in industrial countries where there is a large demand for all power sources, including HEP, (v) in areas where multipurpose dams encourage regional development. The USA is the world's leading producer of HEP. Scandinavia and countries bordering on the Alps-Switzerland, France and Italy make use of HEP. Ukraine and Russia have large HEP stations.
Important hydro-electric projects in the world are as follows:
US Grand Coulee Dam (River Colum~ia); Hoover or Boulder Dam (River Colorado); St. Lawrence Seaway with huge generating plants at Beauharnois, Cornwall, Prescott and Kingston; dams at Fort Peck, Garrison, and Fort Randall on Mississippi and Missouri rivers; and Tennessee Valley Authority (TV A), which includes Canada and comprise over 25 dams.
Canada La Granade Project (River La Grande), Churchill Falls Project (Churchill Basin); and St. Lawrence Seaway Project
Brazil Tucurui Project (Tocantins Basin); Paulo-Alfonso Project (River Sao Francisco)
Paraguay-Brazil Itaipu Project (Parana Basin)
Paraguay-Argentina Corpus Posadas Project (Parana basin)
Venezuela Guri Project -(Orinoco Basin)
Ukraine Dnieper combine scheme, comprising a series of qam along the Dnieper.
Russia Suyano-Shushensk, Kransnoyarsk and Bratsk projects (all in Yenisey Basin): Volgograd and Kuybyshv projects (both on River Volga)
France Donzere-Mondragon Project (Sa one and Rhone rivers); Grenoble Project (Isre river); Argentiere Project (River Durance)
China Several large dams along the Hwang Ho,Yangtze, Si Kiang rivers.
Australia Snowy River Scheme
Besides the above-mentioned projects, several other hydel projects have also been constructed in other parts of the world.
Hydel Power in India India has witnessed considerable . progress in the field of hydro-electricity since independence. Besides various multipurpose river valley projects such as Bhakra-Nangal, Damodar Valley, Hirakud and Chambal, there has been construction of a few exclusive hydel power projects. (See table on power projects in India.)
Electricity, though a comparatively recent development, has become indispensable - to us today. The main ways of deriving electricity is from burning fuels (thermal) and running water (hydro-electricity). Other sources are nuclear energy and non-conventional sources like wind and sun.
HYDEL POWER Hydro-electricity development is dependent upon the following factors: (a) a head of water, waterfalls are useful, a dam may be built to create falling water; (b) large amounts of water to make it more economic; (c) regular and reliable supply of water; (d) presence of lakes which are useful for water storage; (e) space for a reservoir. Heavy capital investment is needed as maintenance costs are also high.
World Distribution of Hydel Power Many hydroelectric power (HEP) generating plants are situated in uplands where the rivers and streams have a steep gradient and waterfalls are common, e.g., in Scandinavia, the Swiss Alps, the Rocky Mountains, the Japanese Alps and the Appalachians. Rivers with a low gradient but a large.
yolume of water can also be used, e.g., the River Shannon in Ireland or the River Volta in Ghana. HEP stations are usually found in: (i) mountainous areas, especially those which have been glaciated and have many waterfalls and lakes, (ii) tropical and temperate regions which experiences a moderate to heavy well-distributed rainfall, (iii) on major rivers with a large volume of water, (iv) in industrial countries where there is a large demand for all power sources, including HEP, (v) in areas where multipurpose dams encourage regional development. The USA is the world's leading producer of HEP. Scandinavia and countries bordering on the Alps-Switzerland, France and Italy make use of HEP. Ukraine and Russia have large HEP stations.
Important hydro-electric projects in the world are as follows:
US Grand Coulee Dam (River Colum~ia); Hoover or Boulder Dam (River Colorado); St. Lawrence Seaway with huge generating plants at Beauharnois, Cornwall, Prescott and Kingston; dams at Fort Peck, Garrison, and Fort Randall on Mississippi and Missouri rivers; and Tennessee Valley Authority (TV A), which includes Canada and comprise over 25 dams.
Canada La Granade Project (River La Grande), Churchill Falls Project (Churchill Basin); and St. Lawrence Seaway Project
Brazil Tucurui Project (Tocantins Basin); Paulo-Alfonso Project (River Sao Francisco)
Paraguay-Brazil Itaipu Project (Parana Basin)
Paraguay-Argentina Corpus Posadas Project (Parana basin)
Venezuela Guri Project -(Orinoco Basin)
Ukraine Dnieper combine scheme, comprising a series of qam along the Dnieper.
Russia Suyano-Shushensk, Kransnoyarsk and Bratsk projects (all in Yenisey Basin): Volgograd and Kuybyshv projects (both on River Volga)
France Donzere-Mondragon Project (Sa one and Rhone rivers); Grenoble Project (Isre river); Argentiere Project (River Durance)
China Several large dams along the Hwang Ho,Yangtze, Si Kiang rivers.
Australia Snowy River Scheme
Besides the above-mentioned projects, several other hydel projects have also been constructed in other parts of the world.
Hydel Power in India India has witnessed considerable . progress in the field of hydro-electricity since independence. Besides various multipurpose river valley projects such as Bhakra-Nangal, Damodar Valley, Hirakud and Chambal, there has been construction of a few exclusive hydel power projects. (See table on power projects in India.)
Infrastructure
Infrastructural facilities can be broadly studied under the following heads:
1. Power
2. Transport, basically comprising the railways, road, shipping and civil aviation sectors
3. Communications, including postal and telecommunications systems
1. Power
2. Transport, basically comprising the railways, road, shipping and civil aviation sectors
3. Communications, including postal and telecommunications systems
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